NORTH  CAROLINA  STATE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 

III  |i||^i|il|||ii||ilil!IIIPI! 


This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated 
below  and  is  subject  to  an  overdue 
fine  as  posted  at  the  circulation  desk. 


EXCEPTION:  Date  due  will  be 
earlier  if  this  item  is  RECALLED. 


200M/09-98-9 


THE  MODERN  FARM  HEN 


BY 


CHESLA  C.  SHERLOCK 


Editor   Pierce's    Farm    Weeklies;    Author    "Care  and    Management   of 

Rabbits;"    "Backyard   Poultry  Keeping;"    "Successful 

Rose  Culture,"  Etc. 


^ 


Published  by 

THE  HOMESTEAD  COMPANY 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 


Copyrighted,    1922,  by 

THE   HOMESTEAD   COMPANY 

All  rights  reserved. 


To  my  father, 

WALLACE  E.  SHERLOCK, 

who  first  had  faith  in  me 

and  from  whom  I  have  inherited 

a  profession. 


PREFACE 

A  few  farmers  have  recognized  the  fine  profit  to  be 
made  from  the  production  of  high-class  market  eggs  and 
the  sale  of  hatching  eggs  and  baby  chicks  in  the  breeding 
season.  They  have  laid  out  the  farm  poultry  work  so 
that  it  can  be  efficiently  handled  in  connection  with  gen- 
eral farming.    And  they  are  making  good  money. 

The  thought  has  been  with  the  author  for  some  years 
that  the  methods  used  by  these  progressive  men  and 
women,  if  placed  in  a  form  accessible  to  other  farmers, 
should  do  much  towards  elevating  the  general  standard 
of  the  farm  hen  and  would  make  farm  poultry  generally 
more  profitable. 

The  result  has  been  the  bringing  together  of  this  book 
which  is  written  entirely  for  farmers  and  is  based  upon 
the  experience  and  the  methods  of  actual  farmers.  It 
deals  only  from  the  practical  standpoint,  keeping  ever 
in  mind  the  units  and  the  conditions  best  adapted  for 
average  farm  conditions.  It  attempts  to  reduce  into  a 
formula,  as  much  as  possible,  every  step  along  the  road 
to  poultry  success. 

It  should  answer  many  of  the  questions  which  people 
are  constantly  raising  as  to  the  possibilities  in  poultry 
for  the  farmer.  It  will  answer  questions  of  methods, 
procedure  and  means.    It  exists  for  no  other  purpose. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  made  to  Dante  M.  Pierce, 
who  has  made  this  work  possible. 

Des  Moines,  Iowa.  Chesla  C.  Sherlock. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Chapter  I 

What  Farm   Poultry  Eaiskrs  Are  Acttjallt  Doing 

Opportunities  In  Poultry  Farming — Egg  Farming  On  a  Commer- 
cial Scale  by  Farmers — Making  Poultry  a  Profitable  Side- 
line— What  Actual  Farm  Men  and  Women  of  the  Middle  West 
Are  Doing. 

Chapter  II 

A  Practical  Farm  Flock  Unit 

How  Many  Hens? — Capital  and  Ground  Necessary  for  the  Best 
Kesults — How  to  Determine  Size  of  the  Flock — Reducing 
Labor  and  Overhead  to  a  Minimum  by  Proper  Planning, 


Chapter  III 

The  Selection  of  Breeds 

The  Meaning  of  Breeds — The  Breeds  of  Economic  Value  to  the 
Farmer — How  to  Select  the  Breed  to  Fit  the  Purpose  In 
Mind — The  Meaning  of  Strains  and  Their  Value. 


Chapter  IV 
Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flock 

Iowa  Semi-Monitor  House — Missouri  Fool-Proof  House — The  Min- 
nesota Type  House — The  Lord  Farms  Small  Flock  House — 
Colony  Houses,  Brooding  Houses  and  Coops — Nests,  Hoppers 
and  Appliances. 

Chapter   V 

The  Laws  and  Principles  of  Breeding 

The  Fundamental  Laws  of  Breeding — Line-Breeding — Inbreeding 
— Cross-Breeding — Grading — Selecting  the  Breeding  Stock. 


8  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

Chapter  VI 

Care  of  the  Farm  Flock  Breeding  Pen 

Isolate  the  Breeding  Pen— Feeding  for  Fertile  Eggs— Selection 
and  Care  of  Hatching  Eggs — Fertility  and  Hatchability  of 
Eggs — Trap-Nesting  and  Pcdigreeing. 

Chapter  VII 

Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation 

Hatching  With  Hens — The  Modern  Incubator  for  Hatching — How 
to  Handle  the  Incubator — Mammoth  Incubators  and  Their 
Management — Running  a  Hatchery. 

Chapter  VIII 

Successful  Brooding  of  Chicks 

Objects  and  Methods  of  Brooding — Fireless  Brooders — Oil  Lamp 
Brooders — Crude  Oil  Brooders — Portable  Coal  Hover  Brood- 
ero — Brooder  House  Methods — Care  of  Chicks  On  Large  Scale. 

Chapter  IX 

How  TO  Feed  Poultry  of  All  Ages 

Principles  of  Feeding — Value  of  Rations — First  Feeding  of  Baby 
Chicks — Feeding  Baby  Chicks  to  Feather  Them  Out — From 
Three  to  Eight  Weeks — Two  Months  to  Maturity — Feeding 
for  Market — Feeding  the  Laying  Flock — Feeding  the  Breed- 
ers. 

Chapter  X 

Developing  the  Young  Stock  Properly 

Importance  of  Systematic  Care — Value  and  Kinds  of  Range — 
Rations  and  Methods. 


Chapter  XI 

Culling  Farm  Poultry  for  Any  Purpose 

Culling  Continually  Practiced— Purpose  of  Culling— Culling  Young 
Stock— Fall  Culling  of  Pullets— Culling  the  Layers— External 
Characteristics  of  Good  Layers. 


Contents  9 

Chapter  XII 

Care  and  Management  for  Winter  Eggs 

Details  of  First  Importance — Regularity  In  Caring  for  the  Flock 
— Keeping  Things  Clean — Should  the  Layers  Have  Range? 

Chapter  XIII 

Artificial  Lighting  for  Winter  Eggs 

Purpose — Results — Costs — Systems  One  May  Use — How  to  Run 
Lights — Dangers  and  Pitfalls  to  Avoid — Automatic  Regu- 
lation. 

Chapter  XIV 

Marketing  Farm  Eggs  Successfully 

Shipping  Eggs — How  to  Pack  for  Shipment — Use  of  Cartons — 
Grading  Eggs — Private  Trade— Advertising. 


Chapter  XV 

How  TO  Sell  and  Advertise  Stock 

Surplus  Stock — How  to  Pack  and  Ship  Hatching  Eggs — ^Where 
and  How  to  Advertise. 


Chapter  XVI 
Poultry  Diseases  and  Remedies 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


A  Portion  of  an  Iowa  Farmer 's  Side-line  Poultry  Plant 2? 

Plant  Built  Up  by  an  Iowa  Farm  Woman 25 

Small  Farm  Poultry  Plant  Housing  250  Layers  Under  Ideal 

Conditions   28 

A  Practical  Flock  of  500  Layers  Maintained  by  a  Farmer's 

Wife   34 

Young  Stock  on  Eange  Along  Edge  of  Young  Orchard  on  an 

Iowa  Farm 37 

A  Farm    Poultry   House   Built   of   Hollow   Tile   With   Full 

Monitor  Eoof   40 

Single  Comb  White  Leghorn  Hen 45 

White  Wyandotte  Hen,  Eepresentative  of  a  Splendid  Breed.  46 

Single  Comb  Ehode  Island  Eed  Hen 47 

Columbian  Plymouth  Eock  Hen 48 

Barred  Plymouth  Eock  Pullet 50 

Iowa    Semi-monitor    Type    Laying    House    Accommodating 

1,000  Layers   55 

Cross-section  of  Iowa  Semi-monitor  House 56 

Floor  Plan  of  One  Unit  of  Pen,  Iowa  Semi-monitor  House. .  57 

A  Eow  of  Missouri  Fool-proof  Poultry  Houses 58 

Front   Elevation,   Missouri  Fool-proof  House;    Also   Detail 

of  Shutter  Construction 59 

Fool-proof  Shutter  Adapted  to  Colony  Coop 60 

An  Adaptation  of  the  Minnesota  Laying  House,  as  Used  on 

Oak  Dale  Farms 62 

Front  Elevation  Lord  Farms  Small  Flock  Laying  House  for 

150  to  200  Layers 63 

Cross-section  Lord  Farms  Small  Flock  Laying  House 64 


12  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

Page 

Colony  Coop  for  100  Baby  Chicks 66 

Front    Elevation   Coal   Burning   Brooder   House   for   Large 

Flock   of   Chicks 67 

Cross-section  Coal  Burning  Brooder  House 68 

Semi-monitor  Colony  Coop 69 

Range  Eoosting  Coop 70 

Small  Flock  Breeding  Houses 70 

Two-pen  Small  Flock  Breeding  Coop 71 

Rear  Wall  Ventilating  Device 72 

Interior  Arrangement  Small  Flock  Breeding  Coop 72 

One  Method  of  Nest  Construction  to  Save  Space  on  Inside 

of  Laying  House 73 

Darkened  Nest  Compartment  for  Wall  Use 74 

Simple  Wall  Nest 74 

Cornell  Trap-nest 75 

For  Nests  Under  Dropping  Board 75 

Another  View  of  Nests  to  Go  Under  Dropping  Board 75 

Missouri  Trap-nest   76 

Lord  Farms  Large  Flock  Hopper 77 

These  Fine  White  Rocks  Are  the  Result  of  Proper  Breeding  79 
Line-breeding   Tends    to    Secure    Uniformity    in    Individual 

Characters 82 

This  Chart  Makes  It  Easy  to  Follow  Line-breeding 88 

A  Desirable  Type  of  Sire  to  Head  the  Breeding  Pen 90 

Chart  Showing  Increase  of  Pure-blood  Through  Grading. . .  92 

Which  Would  You  Select  to  Head  the  Breeding  Pen? 94 

A  Farm  Flock  Breeding  Pen 98 

Ideal  Quarters  for  Breeding  Pen 102 

An  Excellent  Breeding  Pen  of  White  Wyandottes 108 

Outside  Runs  for  Chicks 126 

Hollow  Tile  Brooder  House  in  Dallas  County,  Iowa 131 

Colony  Brooder  House  With  Small  Run  Attached 135 


List  of  Illustrations  13 

Page 
Proper  Eations  and  Systematic  Care  Produced  These  Pullets  138 

Young  Stock  Being  Fed  for  Early  Maturity 141 

Five-months-old  Pullet  Developed  by  Proper  Feeding 146 

Importance  of  Fresh  Water  Must  Not  Be  Overlooked 153 

Colony  Houses  With  Good  Kange  Develop  Young  Stock 158 

An  Economical  Boosting  Coop  for  Young  Stock  on  Eange. .   161 

A  Colony  Coop  in  the  Orchard 163 

Two  High-producing  Leghorns 166 

Showing  Desirable  Head  on  Good  Layer 172 

The  Small,  Snaky  Head  on  Undesirable  Layers 173 

Showing  Desirable  Abdominal  Capacity  for  a  Heavy  Layer .   176 

Pubic  Bone  Test — a  "Three-finger"   Hen 179 

A  "Two-finger"  Layer,  the  Kind  to  Send  to  Market 181 

Culling  Chart  183 

Artificial  Lighting  Chart 194 

Automatic  Alarm  Eegulator  for  Artificial  Lights 200 

Egg  Cartons  Build  Demand  for  Your  Eggs 203 

Carefully  Selected  Eggs  Eeady  for  Shipment 207 

Grade  the  Eggs  Carefully  for  the  Best  Price 211 

Eoadside  Signs  Will  Attract  Attention  to  Your  Farm 215 

One  Way  of  Advertising  Your  Products 216 

An  Electrically-lighted  Sign  Does  Service  at  Night 217 


CHAPTER  I. 
What  Farm  Poultry  Raisers  Are  Doing 


Opportunities  In  Poultry  Parming — Egg  Farming  On  a  Com- 
mercial Scale  by  Farmers — Making  Poultry  a  Profit- 
able Side-Line — What   Actual   Farm   Men   and 
Women  of  the  Middle  West  Are  Doing 

Interest  in  farm  poultry  was  never  greater  than  at 
the  present  time.  This  interest  has  steadily  increased 
during  the  past  twenty  years,  due  to  the  rapid  strides 
made  in  scientific  feeding,  breeding,  culling  and  in  the 
development  of  successful  methods  of  housing  the  flock. 
The  close  attention  paid  to  breeding,  the  development  of 
the  200-egg  laying  hen,  the  perfection  of  the  incubator 
and  of  brooding  devices  whereby  large  flocks  of  young 
chicks  might  be  handled  at  one  operation,  have  all 
played  a  tremendous  part  in  the  fostering  of  proper  in- 
terest on  the  farm  in  poultry  culture. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  greatest  incentive  has 
come  through  the  failure  of  other  farm  products  to  meas- 
ure up  to  the  high  level  of  price  stability  attained  and 
maintained  year  after  year  by  poultry  and  poultry  prod- 
ucts. Hens  properly  cared  for  and  fed  have  always  been 
profitable,  regardless  of  existing  price  levels ;  and  in  re- 
cent years  they  have  been  more  profitable  than  any  other 
farm  product. 

The  opportunities  in  poultry  farming  were  never 
more  promising.  We  do  not,  at  the  present  time,  in  spite 
of  our  great  production  of  eggs  and  market  poultry, 
produce  sufficient  stocks  to  support  our  own  needs. 
Thousands  of  cases  of  Chinese  and  Danish  eggs  are 


16  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

shipped  into  this  country  every  season.  Then,  again, 
the  American  egg  supply  comes  largely  from  the  farm 
hen,  which  means  that  the  production  largely  occurs 
during  the  summer  months  and  that  the  great  per- 
centage of  the  supply  must  go  into  storage  to  meet  the 
winter  demand.  People  do  not  like  storage  eggs  and 
they  will  pay  a  premium  for  fresh  eggs  rather  than  eat 
them.  This  means  that  the  farmer  or  commercial  poul- 
tryman  who  masters  his  craft  and  learns  how  to  secure 
winter  eggs  will  be  in  an  unusually  favorable  position  to 
secure  the  highest  prices  of  the  season  and  the  greatest 
profit  from  his  labor  and  investment. 

Modern  housing  methods,  modern  feeding  and  the 
practice  of  artificial  lighting  have  all  aided  greatly  in 
making  winter  egg  production  a  matter-of-fact  proposi- 
tion to  the  man  who  cares  to  exert  himself  along  the 
proper  line.  For  the  expenditure  of  a  comparatively 
slight  sum  for  "seed"  stock,  the  mere  novice  can  secure 
the  work  of  years  of  the  best  utility  breeders  in  the 
world,  thereby  starting  in  with  heavy  egg-laying  strains, 
where  others  commenced  with  mere  nondescript  layers. 

Egg  Farming  On  a  Commercial  Scale  by  Farmers 

The  farmer  is  in  a  peculiarly  favorable  position  to 
engage  in  egg  farming  on  a  serious  scale.  He  has  the 
land,  the  soil,  the  range.  He  is  in  a  position  to  grow 
practically  all  of  the  necessary  feed  right  upon  his 
place.  If  he  carries  a  good-sized  flock  of  laying  hens  as 
a  side-line,  he  has  the  added  advantage  of  feeding  his 
feed  upon  his  own  place,  thereby  turning  an  additional 
profit  from  it. 

The  business  of  egg  farming  is  primarily  adapted  to 
the  farm.  While  great  profits  are  made  by  many  small 
poultrymen  with  limited  acreage  and  range,  the  maxi- 
mum of  profit  will  undoubtedly  be  found  to  be  in  favor 


What  Farm  Poultry  Raisers  Are  Doing  17 

of  the  farmer.  His  land  is  not  so  high  in  value;  he  has 
less  of  an  investment  to  take  into  consideration;  he  has 
more  land  and,  therefore,  a  greater  choice  of  location  for 
his  various  duties  in  connection  with  the  poultry  busi- 
ness. Last,  but  not  least,  his  overhead  will  be  slightly- 
greater  than  it  now  is  under  the  present  system  of  gen- 
eral farming. 

More  farmers  should  engage  in  egg  farming  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  because  of  the  opportunities  it  offers  for  a 
profitable  market  for  the  farm-grown  grain  and  produce. 
Poultry  make  the  greatest  spread  of  profit  and  the 
quickest  turn-over  of  any  form  of  live-stock  farming. 
Where  the  live  stock  breeder  is  required  to  wait  six 
months,  one  year,  or  even  two  years,  for  a  return  on  the 
grain  and  feed  consumed,  the  poultryman  waits  but  a 
few  days  for  returns  on  the  feed  consumed  by  laying 
hens.  He  can  produce  an  entire  new  unit  (hen)  within 
six  months  of  feeding,  whereas  it  would  take  more  than  a 
year  to  produce  almost  any  other  form  of  live  stock. 
Where  the  hen  consumes  75  to  90  pounds  of  feed  during 
a  producing  year,  a  dairy  cow  will  consume  that  amount 
several  times  in  a  year  and  perhaps  not  net  as  much 
profit  as  one  hen. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  feed  fed  into  poultry 
will  secure  a  cash  return,  the  comparatively  short  time 
in  which  the  working  units  are  replaced,  the  slight  capi- 
tal involved  in  any  one  unit,  and  the  fact  that  hens  are 
the  most  efficient  users  of  the  feed  consumed,  all  combine 
to  make  commercial  egg  farming  of  interest  to  farmers, 
from  the  production  standpoinc. 

There  is  another  element  to  consider.  The  busy  sea- 
sons with  the  poultry  comes  at  times  when  the  average 
farmer  generally  has  little  to  do  outside  of  the  usual 
"chores."  During  the  winter,  general  farm  work  is 
comparatively  light.    That  is  the  period  of  greatest  ac- 


18  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

tivity  for  the  scientific  egg  farmer.  In  the  spring,  the 
majority  of  the  chicks  can  be  hatched  and  brought  to 
the  point  where  they  are  able  to  largely  take  care  of 
themselves  before  the  general  rush  of  spring  farm  work 
sets  in.  Through  the  summer,  if  they  have  range  and 
are  handled  under  the  colony  system  and  are  hopper-fed, 
they  will  require  a  minimum  of  attention  from  the 
farmer.  They  commence  to  require  close  attention  in 
the  fall  when  the  harvest  is  completed  on  the  average 
farm,  releasing  the  farmer  from  the  bulk  of  his  year's 
work. 

Making  Poultry  a  Profitable  Side-line 

Where  it  is  not  possible,  or  considered  advisable,  to 
engage  in  commercial  egg  farming  on  an  extensive  scale, 
or  as  the  main  purpose  in  life,  the  farmer  is  still  in  a 
splendid  position  to  develop  egg  farming  up  to  the  ex- 
tent of  his  possibilities,  as  a  side-line.  Many  farmers  in 
the  Middle  West  are  carrying  as  large  flocks  as  a  side- 
line to  other  farming  activities,  as  many  commercial  egg 
farmers  are  able  to  carry.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  have  recognized  the  extreme  value  of  equipment, 
proper  housing,  proper  methods  of  care  and  feeding 
and  have  arranged  everything  with  the  idea  of  making 
every  motion  count  for  the  most.  We  shall  mention  a 
few  of  these  people  a  little  later  in  this  chapter. 

Poultry  is  adapted  to  side-line  purposes  on  the  aver- 
age farm  for  the  same  reason  that  it  can  desirably  be 
made  the  chief  concern,  where  other  specialized  interests 
do  not  interfere.  Poultry  farming  in  connection  with 
live  stock  breeding  has  been  carried  on  successfully  by 
a  number  of  Corn  Belt  farmers  and  breeders.  It  is  a 
success  on  general  farms,  on  fruit  farms,  on  waste  land, 
on  poor  land,  on  high-priced  land.  There  is  not  a  single 
specialized  kind  of  farming  that  poultry  will  not  fit  into. 


What  Farm  Poultry  Raisers  Are  Doing  19 

with  the  possible  exception  of  truck  farming  and,  then, 
there  are  many  points  of  contact  between  these  two  that 
might  make  them  advantageous  to  each  other. 

A  number  of  Iowa  farm  men  and  women  are  regularly- 
carrying  1,000  laying  hens  as  a  side-line  to  some  other 
kind  of  farm  work.  They  are  enabled  to  do  this  because 
they  have  taken  a  leaf  from  the  experience  of  the  com- 
mercial egg  farmers  and  have  availed  themselves  of 
every  advantage  gained  through  the  experience  of  these 
men.  They  have  provided  the  proper  types  of  houses 
for  their  birds  for  their  climate,  they  have  studied  the 
principles  of  breeding  and  have  applied  them,  they  have 
studied  rations  and  the  feeding  properties  of  grains  and 
feeds — in  short,  they  have  not  permitted  the  laying  hen 
to  shift  for  herself,  but  have  set  about  the  work  of  intel- 
ligently giving  her  the  advantage  of  the  best  poultry  ex- 
perience the  world  has  to  offer.  And  they  have  suc- 
ceeded, as  the  records  plainly  show. 

There  is  no  particular  "secret"  about  the  business  of 
making  poultry  a  profitable  side-line  to  general  farming 
or  present  farming  work.  It  takes  no  particular  brand 
of  luck  with  poultry ;  there  is  but  slight  element  of  risk 
in  it  now,  with  methods  so  largely  standardized,  indeed, 
less  than  in  the  production  of  most  farm  crops.  The 
hustler,  the  worker,  the  man  who  is  thorough  in  his  work 
and  who  does  not  become  lazy  or  indifferent,  the  man 
who  is  willing  to  learn  and  to  apply  the  results  of  the 
experiments  made  by  others  when  it  will  benefit  him,  is 
the  type  of  man  who  wiU  succeed. 

What  Actual  Farm  Men  and  Women  of  the  Middle 
West  Are  Doing 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  very  few  of  the  men  and 
women  of  the  Middle  West  who  have  made  a  success  of 
poultry  farming  voluntarily  took  up  that  work.     Some 


20  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

outside  force,  some  grim  necessity,  seems  to  have  been 
the  moving  cause  of  their  first  serious  attention  to  egg 
farming. 

But  thousands  of  farmers  are  now  seriously  interested 
in  the  possibilities  of  poultry  farming.  They  are  mak- 
ing a  careful  study  of  the  situation ;  they  are  talking  to 
and  interviewing  poultry  raisers  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try ;  they  are  asking  the  advice  of  their  farm  and  poul- 
try journals,  and  are  visiting  more  or  less  successful 
poultry  plants  in  their  own  neighborhood  and  are  taking 
short  courses  at  their  state  college  preparatory  to  engag- 
ing in  the  work  on  a  more  or  less  extensive  scale. 

Back  of  it  all  there  lurks  that  individual  interest  in 
the  success  of  others,  for  it  gives  us  all  something  to  pin 
our  faith  to.  Can  we  succeed  ?  Will  we  succeed  ?  How 
can  we  be  sure  of  success  ?  How  did  those  who  are  a  suc- 
cess start?  These  and  numerous  other  questions  sug- 
gest themselves  to  the  beginner. 

We  have  attempted  to  indicate  briefly  the  personal  ex- 
perience of  several  outstanding  men  and  women  in  the 
poultry  business  on  the  farm  in  the  Middle  West  so  as  to 
answer  these  questions.  The  experiences  of  many  more 
people  might  have  been  given,  but  they  would  serve  no 
useful  purpose,  no  purpose  not  met  in  the  experiences 
given  herewith. 

One  fact  has  been  impressed  strongly  upon  the  author 
and  that  is  that  the  success  of  practically  every  person 
he  has  ever  interviewed  who  has  won  at  poultry  farming 
has  been  grounded  upon  the  same  identical  factors, 
namely,  proper  foundation  stock,  proper  housing, 
proper  care  and  feeding,  plus  attention  to  details.  That 
is  all  there  is  to  poultry  success.  We  leave  it  to  the 
reader. 


What  Farm  Poultry  Raisers  Are  Doing  21 

D.  E.  Carlson,  Iowa. 

D.  E.  Carlson,  an-  Iowa  farmer  who  farms  115  acres 
of  land,  has  made  a  big  success  from  egg  farming  as  a 
side-line  to  general  farm  work.  Several  years  ago  he 
was  taking  in  $4,000  per  year  from  his  flock  of  1,000 
layers.  He  is  doubtless  doing  better  than  that  at  the 
present  time,  as  he  has  since  increased  his  capacity. 

The  story  of  Mr,  Carlson's  achievements  with  his 
poultry  flock  does  not  read  with  any  of  the  sensational 
glamour  which  one  finds  in  many  stories  of  poultry  suc- 
cess. It  is  a  simple,  straight-forward  story  of  hard- 
headed  thinking  and  wise  planning  to  put  the  flock  on 
a  paying  basis.  Mr.  Carlson,  like  most  farmers,  had 
definite  ideas  as  to  the  improvements  which  he  wished 
to  make  on  his  farm.  In  order  to  get  at  the  work  a  little 
at  a  time  and  when  he  could  afford  it,  he  adopted  the 
plan  of  making  some  sort  of  permanent  improvement 
each  year.  A  few  years  ago,  it  came  the  ''turn"  of  the 
poultry  to  be  considered. 

Mr.  Carlson  knew  that  the  flock  needed  a  better  house, 
if  he  was  to  get  any  sort  of  returns  from  it  during  the 
winter  months  when  prices  were  high.  He  was  in  doubt 
as  to  what  sort  of  a  house  would  be  best  for  general 
farm  work.  He  did  not  take  a  chance  and  build  the  first 
thing  that  came  along,  or  pick  out  a  plan  that  seemed 
all  right  because  someone  else  had  it.  He  got  on  the. 
train  and  went  down  to  the  agricultural  college  at  Ames 
and  enlisted  the  aid  of  Professor  Lapp  in  the  poultry 
extension  department.  Professor  Lapp  immediately  rec- 
ommended the  semi-monitor  type  house,  sometimes  re- 
ferred to  as  the  "Iowa  house,"  for  Mr.  Carlson's  use. 
It  is  designed  especially  for  the  farm  flock  and  may  be 
used  for  any  size  or  age  of  poultry. 

Mr.  Carlson  returned  home  and  built  one  of  these 
houses  24x60  feet  that  same  fall.     Three  hundred  and 


22 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


seventy-five  hens  were  placed  in  this  house  in  the  early- 
part  of  November  and  during  the  month  of  December 
$350  worth  of  eggs  were  sold  from  this  flock  and  225 
other  hens  kept  in  the  old  houses. 

He  found  that  the  hens  in  the  new  house  laid  from  six 
to  eight  eggs  each  more  than  those  in  the  old  house,  and 
that  settled  the  matter  for  him  then  and  there.    He  de- 


Fig.   1 — A   Portion  of  an  Iowa   Farmer's  Side-line   Poultry  Plant. 


termined  to  increase  the  quarters  so  that  it  would  be 
possible  for  him  to  accommodate  1,000  layers  during  the 
winter  season. 

The  following  year  an  addition  was  built  to  the  laying 
house,  making  it  24x96  feet  and  containmg  a  feed 
room  at  one  end,  wath  feed  bins,  mash  mixers,  and  a 
place  to  grade  and  pack  the  eggs.  Since  that  time  Mr. 
Carlson  has  increased  his  plant  to  include  another  house 
cf  this  type  24x127  feet.  This  gives  Mr.  Carlson  just 
the  sort  of  equipment  that  a  farm  the  size  he  maintains 
can  support  in  comfortable  fashion.  It  is  necessary  to 
buy  but  very  little  of  the  feed  used.  Mr,  Carlson  mixes 
his  own  mashes,  grinds  most  of  the  ingredients  going 
into  them,  and  outside  of  a  few  feeds  necessary  to  start 
off  the  baby  chicks  and  growing  stock  properly,  every- 
thing fed  is  raised  right  on  the  farm. 


What  Farm  Poultry  Raisers  Are  Doing  23 

Mr.  Carlson  tested  the  English  and  the  American 
strains  of  Single  Comb  White  Leghorns  side  by  side  in 
order  to  determine  just  which  strain  he  wanted  to  use 
in  breeding  up  his  flock  to  a  state  of  high  egg  production. 

"I  found  that  the  American  strain  had  it  all  over  the 
English, ' '  he  said.  ' '  My  American  Leghorns  lay  a  large 
egg.  In  fact,  I  have  taken  prizes  and  secured  premiums 
on  my  eggs  shipped  to  the  New  York  market  because  of 
their  size.  So  I  think  I  will  stick  to  the  American  Leg- 
horn, for  in  my  own  case  it  has  proved  to  be  the  best 
producer,  both  in  size  of  eggs  and  in  number." 

Mr.  Carlson  has  a  mammoth  incubator  which  brings 
off  hatches  of  several  hundred  eggs  at  one  setting.  This 
enables  him  to  get  all  the  young  stock  he  needs  ordinari- 
ly in  one  or  two  settings  and  he  has  the  balance  of  the 
season  to  produce  baby  chicks  to  sell  to  others. 

The  young  stock  is  brooded  in  small  colony  coops  and 
brooder  houses  each  10x12  feet  in  size.  These  houses 
are  built  either  on  the  semi-monitor  or  shed-roof  type. 
As  soon  as  the  chicks  are  feathered  and  are  able  to  take 
care  of  themselves,  they  are  given  range  and  from  that 
time  on  the  element  of  care  necessary  to  bring  them  to 
maturity  is  not  so  great. 

Mr.  Carlson's  success  has  been  swift  and  sure.  This 
has  been  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  fact  that  he 
sought  the  aid  of  the  experts  at  the  state  agricultural 
station  and  has  had  the  benefit  of  their  guidance  and  aid 
ever  since. 

He  has  practiced  the  rigid  culling  necessary  to  weed 
out  the  drones  in  a  flock  the  size  he  maintains.  He  was 
especially  careful  to  have  every  detail  right  in  the  be- 
ginning. His  housing  appliances  are  correct  in  prin- 
ciple. His  feeding  rations  are  correct  in  ingredients  to 
make  heavy  egg  production  possible. 


24  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

In  addition,  he  keeps  pace  with  the  newer  develop- 
ments in  poultry  culture.  He  has  installed  artificial  light- 
ing in  the  laying  houses  and  has  used  the  lights  for  sever- 
al seasons  with  marked  success.  ' '  The  lights  are  a  great 
aid  in  getting  winter  eggs, ' '  he  said.  '  *  There  can  be  no 
doubt  about  that."  Mr.  Carlson  is  also  using  trapnests 
for  the  purpose  of  spotting  the  better  laying  hens  and 
pullets. 

"I  find  that  chickens  require  a  lot  of  work  and  close 
attention,"  he  said,  "but  they  certainly  make  you  the 
money.  And  the  fine  thing  about  it  is  that  it  is  a  quick 
cash  return,  something  not  possible  with  all  forms  of 
farm  work." 

The  Carlson  success  is  merely  the  result  of  three 
things:  Proper  housing,  proper  feeding  and  care,  and 
attention  to  details.  It  is  something  within  the  reach  of 
every  farmer. 

Mrs.  Etta  Bechtel,  Iowa. 

Mrs.  Etta  Bechtel,  an  Iowa  farm  woman,  was  forced 
to  turn  to  commercial  poultry  production  as  the  only 
way  in  which  to  earn  a  living  for  her  family.  The 
Bechtel's  had  become  involved  in  an  unfortunate  land 
deal  which  deprived  them  of  all  of  their  farm  land  with 
the  exception  of  55  acres.  They  would  have  lost  it  all 
had  Mrs.  Bechtel  not  refused  to  sign  the  deed  for  the  55 
acres  mentioned, 

"When  we  came  back,"  said  Mrs.  Bechtel,  "I  deter- 
mined to  go  into  the  poultry  business  on  a  large  scale. 
I  had  faith  in  the  hens  and  I  told  my  husband  that  poul- 
try was  the  only  hope  for  salvation  on  the  55  acres,  and 
he  was  so  utterly  discouraged  that  he  agreed  with  me. 
That  was  eight  years  ago," 

Mrs.  Bechtel  tested  out  practically  every  breed  and 
strain  of  poultry  before  she  finally  settled  upon  the  Eng- 


What  Farm  Poultry  Raisers  Are  Doing  25 

lish  strain  White  Leghorns.  Mrs.  Bechtel,  unlike  D.  E. 
Carlson,  found  that  the  English  Leghorns  laid  better  for 
her  than  the  American  strains,  so  all  others  were  dis- 
carded. 

*'I  started  with  200  pullets,"  she  continued,  "and  had 
good  success  from  the  start.  I  had  eggs  to  sell  and  got 
ray  start  b>  advertising  in  leading  farm  and  poultry 
papers.  1  had  a  great  business  from  the  start  in  hatch- 
ing eggs  and  have  always  had  to  turn  down  business 
through  inability  to  supply  the  demand." 

The  market  eggs  produced  by  the  Bechtels  are  all 
shipped  to  a  commission  house  in  New  York  City.  Dur- 
ing the  hatching  season,  the  output  of  the  Bechtel  plant 
is  marketed  in  the  form  of  hatching  eggs  and  baby  chicks 
all  over  the  country. 

"The  cornerstone  of  my  success,"  she  said,  "is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  we  started  with  the  very  best  founda- 
tion stock  that  we  could  buy.  When  we  started  with 
the  Barron  strain,  I  bought  the  very  best  pen  that  we 
could  afford.  We  have  often  paid  $50  and  $75  for  cock- 
erels to  head  our  breeding  pens — pedigreed  birds  coming 
from  high-producing  dams.     At   other   times  we  have 


Pig.   2 — Plant   Built   Up  by  an  Iowa   Farm  Woman. 

paid  as  high  as  $5  per  egg  for  eggs  coming  from  laying 
contest  winners  with  high  official  records.  One  cannot 
be  niggardly  in  this  respect.  The  best  that  money  can 
buy  is  the  least  that  one  can  afford  in  this  respect. ' ' 


26  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

The  Bechtel  flock  is  trapnested  and  line-breeding  for 
egg  production  is  carefully  carried  out.  They  keep  their 
hens  through  the  second  year  and  then  dispose  of  them 
for  breeding  stock  at  from  $2  to  $2.50  each.  The  sur- 
plus cockerels  from  the  early  hatches  are  marketed  as 
broilers  on  the  New  York  City  market.  Last  spring  they 
brought  60  cents  per  pound  when  they  averaged  one  and 
one-half  to  two  pounds  each. 

An  example  of  what  can  be  done  under  average  farm 
conditions  in  the  way  of  winter  egg  records  under 
proper  environment  is  shown  in  the  performance  of  400 
pullets  on  the  Bechtel  farm  during  December,  1921. 
These  pullets  netted  Mrs.  Bechtel  $100  per  week  during 
that  month,  the  eggs  selling  at  70  cents,  75  cents,  80 
cents  and  85  cents  per  dozen  during  the  month  on  the 
New  York  City  market.  It  cost  Mrs.  Bechtel  $3.81  ex- 
press to  ship  two  cases  of  eggs  to  New  York  and  she 
netted  $20  per  case  on  her  eggs. 

Mrs.  Bechtel  grades  her  eggs  to  weight  and  size,  es- 
tablishing 26  ounces  to  the  dozen  as  her  standard  or  min- 
imum grade.  Her  yearling  hens  will  produce  eggs  aver- 
aging around  30  ounces  to  the  dozen.  Her  baby  chicks 
are  likewise  carefully  graded  before  being  shipped  out. 
This  insures  customer  satisfaction. 

Missouri  fool-proof  type  laying  and  breeding  houses 
are  used  on  the  farm,  after  testing  them  in  comparison 
with  other  types,  including  the  Iowa  semi-monitor  house. 
They  found  the  latter  was  not  as  successful  as  the  for- 
mer, in  their  own  case.  Great  consideration  is  given  to 
the  mating  of  the  breeding  pens,  as  it  is  one  of  the  tests 
of  success  in  poultry  culture,  particularly  so  in  increas- 
ing egg  production  from  year  to  year. 

In  1921,  Mrs.  Bechtel  shipped  40,000  to  50,000  baby 
chicks.  She  has  a  mammoth  incubator  of  7,000-egg  ca- 
pacity and  several  smaller  300-egg  machines.  Her  total 
capacity  is  10,000  eggs  at  one  setting. 


What  Farm  Poultry  Raisers  Are  Doing  27 

Artificial  lighting  and  rigid  culling  is  practiced.  The 
Bechtels  are  enthusiastic  in  their  support  of  artificial 
lighting.  "When  we  turned  on  our  lights,"  they  said, 
"our  egg  production  jumped  30  per  cent." 

Mrs.  Bechtel  is  just  an  ordinary  country  woman,  of 
average  ability  and  temperament.  But  she  has  a  quiet 
determination,  an  air  of  conviction  without  undue  self- 
assertiveness  about  her,  which  impresses  one  with  the 
thought  that  she  is  capable  of  her  job  and  entitled  to  the 
success  that  has  come  to  her. 

Hugo  Anderson,  Minnesota. 

Hugo  Anderson  has  demonstrated  in  a  big  way  what 
can  be  accomplished  through  a  small  beginning  in  com- 
mercial egg  farming.  He  carries  a  minimum  of  3,500 
layers  through  the  winter  each  year  on  his  26-acre  plant 
near  Duluth,  Minnesota.  He  has  also  demonstrated  that 
cheap  lands  unsuited  for  other  agricultural  purposes 
can  be  made  to  earn  a  high  return  when  turned  to  poul- 
try and  egg  production.  Mr.  Anderson  markets  all  of 
his  eggs  in  privately  marked  cartons  through  a  large  de- 
partment store  in  Duluth  and  has  never  been  able  to 
supply  the  demand. 

During  the  hatching  season  he  markets  thousands 
upon  thousands  of  baby  chicks  and  hatching  eggs  all 
over  the  country.  His  total  annual  business  is  above  the 
$25,000  mark,  the  monthly  income  running  from  $2,000 
to  $5,000  the  year  around. 

Mr.  Anderson  is  the  father  of  the  commercial  egg 
farming  community  at  Barnum  and  the  largest  individ- 
ual producer.  When  he  started  in  1907,  the  hen  was  a 
curiosity  in  his  section  of  the  country.  People  had  al- 
ways thought  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  keep  hens 
that  far  north  in  the  winters  experienced  there.     There 


28  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

is  plenty  of  room  for  this  assumption  when  one  consid- 
ers that  it  often  gets  as  cold  as  40  degrees  below  zero 
and  stays  there  for  six  weeks  at  a  time. 

Today  Barnum  is  said  to  be  the  second  largest  com- 
munity egg-producing  center  in  the  United  States,  rank- 


Fig.  3 — Small  Farm  Poultry  Plant  Housing  250  Laying  Hens  Under 
Ideal    Conditions. 


ing  next  to  Petaluma,  California,  in  this  respect.  Hard- 
ly a  soul  in  Barnum  is  not  engaged  in  egg  production  on 
the  side.  Even  the  cashier  of  the  local  bank  has  his  flock 
of  1,000  layers  on  the  side.  At  the  time  we  visited  Bar- 
num, he  was  topping  the  list  at  the  local  creamery  for 
the  size  of  the  egg  check  (Mr.  Anderson  does  not  market 
through  the  creamery,  but  independently)  running  be- 
tween $600  and  $700  per  month. 

Mr.  Anderson  has  paid  close  attention  to  egg-laying 
ability  and  has  built  up  a  high-record  strain.  One  flock 
of  200  selected  pullets  averaged  well  over  the  200-egg 
mark  for  him  in  1918,  and  he  states  that  his  selected 
flock  of  layers  averages  60  per  cent  egg  production 
throughout  the  year.  These  records  seem  exceptional  to 
breeders  farther  south,  but  when  it  is  taken  into  con- 
sideration that  the  crisp  climate  in  northern  Minnesota 
tends   to   cut   down   the   normal   molting    periods    and 


What  Farm  Poultry  Raisers  Are  Doing  29 

hurries  the  hens  to  quick  feather  development  when  they 
do  molt,  it  is  not  unreasonable. 

Mr.  Anderson  uses  artificial  lighting  for  his  layers  and 
states  that  he  could  not  get  along  without  it.  He  is  also 
severe  in  his  culling  methods  and  is  constantly  working 
for  high  flock  averages,  believing  that  is  more  impor- 
tant than  individual  records.  He  feeds  correct  rations, 
gives  particular  attention  to  the  construction  of  his 
houses,  as  is  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  Buildings,  and 
pays  close  attention  to  details.  These  factors  have  won 
success  for  him,  as  they  have  for  others. 


CHAPTER  II. 
A  Practical  Farm  Flock  Unit 


How  Many  Hens? — Capital  and  Ground  Necessary  for  Best 
Eesults — How   TO   Determine    Size   of   Flock — ^Re- 
ducing Labor  and  Overhead  to  a   Mini- 
mum BY  Proper  Planning 

The  first  question  that  comes  to  every  farmer  who 
wishes  to  give  the  hens  the  place  they  deserve  in  his 
farming  business  is,  How  many  hens  should  I  be  able  to 
handle  at  a  profit?  The  average  person  is  inclined  to 
think  in  terms  of  numbers  rather  than  in  terms  of  profit 
and,  consequently,  overestimate  the  maximum  sized  flock 
that  he  should  handle. 

It  is  not  numbers  that  makes  for  profit  in  the  poultry 
business,  any  more  than  numbers  make  for  profit  with 
dairy  cattle.  The  laying  hen  is  an  individual  and  her 
performance  must  be  considered  and  judged  as  such. 
Many  farmers  are  maintaining  flocks  of  several  hun- 
dred hens  and  are  receiving  such  returns  as  they  do  get 
from  a  few  dozen  hens.  It  is  obvious  that  the  culls  and 
drones  deprive  such  farmers  of  profits,  rather  than  pro- 
duce them. 

It  is  likewise  possible  to  overdo  the  matter  in  the 
initial  start  made.  The  tendency  too  often  is  to  seek 
to  acquire  a  large  flock  of  hens  in  as  short  a  time  as  pos- 
sible. Consequently,  the  beginner  makes  the  mistake  of 
spreading  his  money  over  numbers  rather  than  restrict- 
ing it  to  quality  in  the  seed  stock  purchased. 

No  man  can  determine  in  advance  just  how  many  hens 
he  can  handle  at  a  profit.     He  may  estimate,  but  the 


32  The  Modern  Farm  Ren 

difficulty  with  estimates  is  that  they  are  generally  over- 
done. The  best  practice,  and  the  safest  practice  is  to 
make  a  modest  beginning  with  the  best  seed  stock  one 
can  afford,  then  gradually  expand  as  one  learns  the  ele- 
ments of  modern  methods  and  how  to  apply  them  to  the 
flock.  Having  won  a  profit  with  the  few  hens,  then  it 
is  in  order  to  expand  and  increase  the  operations.  This 
plan  insures  the  laying  of  a  sound  foundation  under 
your  work  in  future  years,  but  if  you  make  the  mistake 
of  trying  to  jump  into  the  poultry  business  on  a  full- 
fledged  scale  within  a  year  or  two,  you  are  very  likely  to 
wake  up  some  morning  and  discover  that  you,  have  built 
the  roof  to  your  house  and  have  given  no  thought  to  the 
foundation  and  the  structure. 

Make  haste  slowly  is  the  best  and  safest  rule  for  the 
beginner  to  follow.  The  farmer  may  think  that  he 
knows  a  great  deal  about  chickens  and  how  to  handle 
them,  but  he  will  find,  if  he  is  fair-minded  and  willing 
to  learn  what  has  been  done  in  the  poultry  world  in  re- 
cent years,  that  he  has  to  unlearn  a  great  deal  that  he 
already  knows,  and  learn  a  lot  of  new  practices  and 
methods  in  addition. 

The  very  best  way  to  start  is  to  buy  a  breeding  pen 
(one  male  and  four  females)  of  the  very  best  blood  lines 
in  your  chosen  breed  that  you  can  afford  to  buy.  This 
means,  in  the  first  place,  that  considerable  time  will  be 
spent  in  investigating  the  breeds  and  the  strains  within 
these  breeds.  After  the  best  strain  has  been  selected,  it 
is  then  necessary  to  secure  the  very  best  specimens  that 
you  can  afford  to  buy.  Of  course,  this  breeding  pen  will 
call  for  more  of  an  initial  outlay  than  baby  chicks  or 
hatching  eggs  would  cost,  but  it  is  the  safest  and  best 
plan  in  the  long  run. 

For  one  thing,  you  know  absolutely  what  you  are  get- 
ting, and  can  tell  fairly  well  what  to  expect  from  the 
birds  as  breeders  by  a  careful  examination  of  them. 


A  Practical  Farm  Flock   Unit  33 

With  hatching  eggs  and  baby  chicks  the  gamble  is 
greater,  and  the  results  seldom  as  satisfactory.  In  our 
judgment,  a  breeding  pen  of  the  very  highest  type  we 
could  find  for  seed  stock  would  well  be  worth  $100,  and 
it  may  be  that  you  will  have  to  pay  more  than  that.  This 
is  not  an  outrageous  price  when  you  stop  to  consider 
that  live  stock  breeders  pay  into  the  thousands  of  dol- 
lars for  a  single  breeding  animal  which  may  not  return 
any  greater  percentage  of  profit  than  a  good  laying  hen. 
The  point  is  that  the  best  that  money  will  buy  is  none 
too  good  for  seed  stock. 

Capital  and  Ground  Necessary  for  Best  Results 

The  farmer  will  not,  of  course,  require  the  capital  to 
engage  in  poultry  farming  that  anyone  else  would  re- 
quire because  he  has  land  with  which  to  make  the  start. 
This  generally  eats  up  a  good  share  of  the  commercial 
poultryman's  capital  at  the  outset  and  reduces  his 
chances  of  success. 

From  the  standpoint  of  capital,  the  farmer  is  in  the 
most  favorable  position  of  anyone  to  engage  in  poultry 
farming.  He  not  only  has  the  land  with  which  to  work, 
but  he  also  has  practically  all  of  his  living  and  house- 
hold expenses  accounted  for.  This  means  that  he  can 
start  on  the  proper  scale  for  less  money  than  the  man 
who  enters  poultry  farming  from  some  other  occupation. 

The  capital  required  will  vary  in  individual  cases  and 
according  to  the  object  the  farmer  has  in  mind.  In 
practically  every  case  the  purchase  of  new  seed  stock — 
pure-bred  stock — wiU  be  necessary.  Likewise,  modern 
poultry  buildings  wiU  have  to  be  erected  in  order  to  pre- 
pare for  the  new  flock.  If  the  business  is  to  be  built  up 
from  a  single  pen  of  seed  stock,  no  outlay  will  ordinarily 
be  required  for  brooder  houses  or  incubators  the  first 


34 


The  Modern  Farm  lien 


season,  but  these  must  be  planned  for  before  the  flock 
has  been  brought  to  its  maximum  size. 

Some  farmers  will  require  practically  no  capital  at  all, 
outside  of  the  money  invested  in  seed  stock.  By  a  few 
well-chosen  alterations  in  existing  poultry  houses  on  the 
farm,  in  the  light  of  recommendations  given  elsewhere  in 
this  book,  they  can  adjust  the  housing  problem  to  the 
proper  basis.  Being  ovmers  of  their  land,  no  capital  will 
be  required  in  that  direction  and  the  general  farm  work 
can  be  depended  upon  to  support  them  until  the  poultry 
business  comes  into  its  own,  or  performs  its  rightful 
share  as  a  flourishing  side-line. 


L 

M^^ 

!•?*' 

■ .  -<.^?^"    ■  - '-'  ''-^-  ,-4^,' '•I 

Kig.   4 — A   Priirticiil   Flock  of  500  Layers  Maintained  by  a  Farmer's  Wife. 

To  others  more  capital  will  be  necessary.  The  exist- 
ing poultry  houses  will  have  to  be  torn  down  absolutely 
and  complete  new  houses  constructed.  This  will  require 
capital  before  the  new  flocks  can  be  expected  to  produce 
an  income.  Seed  stock  will  require  capital,  provision 
will  have  to  be  made  for  the  brooding  and  shelter  of  the 
growing  stock,  appliances  and  equipment  will  have  to 
be  purchased  or  made.     And  the  capital  required  will 


A  Practical  Farm  Flock   Unit  35 

rise  in  amount  in  proportion  to  size  of  the  flock  which 
the  farmer  expects  to  maintain  ultimately,  because  it 
will  be  necessary,  in  the  interests  of  ultimate  economy, 
to  plan  all  building  operations  with  this  goal  in  mind, 
to  look  to  the  future  and  to  anticipate  the  future  wants 
in  order  to  avoid  a  waste  or  loss  of  capital  and  labor. 
This  will  call  for  the  expenditure  of  more  capital  for 
the  time  being  than  might  otherwise  be  the  case. 

The  actual  amount  necessary  will  depend  upon  cir- 
cumstances surrounding  each  case.  One  should  have, 
roughly  speaking,  sufficient  capital  to  invest  to  carry 
him  and  the  flock  through  the  first  full  year  at  least. 
This  depends  upon  the  size  of  flock  one  may  be  able  to 
carry  through  the  first  winter,  and  that  can  never  be 
estimated  to  a  certainty.  But  any  flock,  regardless  of 
size,  should  be  made  to  earn  a  profit  after  the  first  sea- 
son or  one  might  as  well  abandon  any  thought  of  making 
a  success  at  poultry  farming  and  turn  to  something  else. 
And  this  is  just  as  true  where  poultry  is  to  be  a  side-line 
as  where  it  is  to  be  the  main  source  of  income.  If  it  is 
not  an  efficient  side-line  it  has  no  excuse  for  existence ;  it 
is  merely  eating  up  feed  and  labor  that  could  be  ex- 
pended in  some  other  direction. 

It  will  not  ordinarily  be  necessary  for  the  general 
farmer  to  set  aside  any  considerable  amount  of  ground 
for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  poultry  flock.  If  the  proper 
laying  houses  are  constructed,  as  recommended  else- 
where in  this  book,  no  yards  will  be  necessary  at  aU.  In 
fact,  the  laying  hens  will  do  much  better  from  every 
standpoint  if  they  are  confined  throughout  the  laying 
season  in  the  laying  houses.  The  actual  ground  occupied 
by  the  laying  house  or  houses  will  not  be  a  considerable 
item.  Thousands  of  hens  have  been  maintained  suc- 
cessfully on  a  few  acres  where  intensive  methods  are 
followed.    In  fact,  where  the  soil  is  suitable  for  inten- 


36  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

sive  poultry  culture,  2,000  laying  hens  to  the  acre  have 
been  successfully  produced  and  maintained  year  in  and 
year  out.  There  is  no  need  for  the  average  farmer  going 
to  this  extreme;  indeed,  it  would  be  practically  an  im- 
possibility unless  outside  labor  was  engaged  to  aid  in 
the  work. 

Some  yardage  will  be  necessary  for  the  brooder  houses 
where  the  chicks  can  be  allowed  to  run  in  nice  weather. 
But  chicks  are  usually  taken  out  of  the  brooder  houses 
when  a  month  to  six  weeks  old  and  sent  to  the  colony 
houses  on  range.  These  may  be  located  either  in  the 
orchard  or  along  the  cornfield,  thereby  utilizing  to 
double  purpose  land  engaged  in  some  other  productive 
purposes. 

How  TO  Determine  the  Size  op  the  Flock 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  one  can  determine  the 
size  of  the  flock  which  he  can  best  maintain,  but  the  mat- 
ter must,  in  the  last  analysis,  be  settled  by  the  individual 
himself.  The  determination  of  the  question  is  grounded 
in  the  purpose  to  which  poultry  is  to  be  put,  and  the 
ability,  energy  and  resources  of  the  individual. 

Where  poultry  farming  is  to  become  the  chief  busi- 
ness of  the  farmer,  it  might  be  said  that  there  is  no  limit 
to  which  one  may  go.  "When  it  is  considered  that  many 
specialty  breeders  on  comparatively  small  farms  are  do- 
ing a  business  annually  running  from  $25,000  to  $100,- 
000  the  truth  of  this  statement  is  better  appreciated.  A 
number  of  large  specialty  breeders  devote  the  entire 
acreage  to  poultry  farming ;  several  we  have  in  mind,  so 
utilizing  farms  over  100  acres  in  extent. 

Looked  at  from  a  labor  standpoint,  one  man  can  easily 
manage  a  flock  of  1,000  layers,  raise  the  young  stock  each 
year,  run  the  incubators,  pack  and  ship  the  eggs,  as  a 
side-line  to  general  farming.    But,  and  this  is  where  the 


A  Practical  Farm  Flock    Unit  37 

rub  lies,  everything  must  be  planned  and  arranged,  as 
indicated  in  a  subsequent  paragraph,  so  that  every  mo- 
tion will  count  and  all  labor  will  be  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum. 

Practical  farmers  who  are  raising  poultry  as  a  side- 
line on  farms  in  the  Corn  Belt  have  told  us  that  they  can 
handle  1,000  layers  to  good  advantage  without  being 
tied  down  too  close,  and  they  are  men  who  speak  from 
experience.  But  they  are  utilizing  every  bit  of  modern 
equipment  that  will  aid  them  in  their  work  and  they  are 
"on  their  toes"  all  the  time  and  on  the  lookout  for  meth- 
ods to  reduce  their  labor,  eliminate  lost  motion,  save 
steps,  and,  at  the  same  time,  not  neglect  the  welfare  of 
their  flocks. 


Fig.  5 — Young  Stock  on  Range  Along  Edge  of  Young  Orchard  on  an 
Iowa   Farm. 

Where  poultry  is  to  be  managed  as  a  side-line  to  other 
farm  work,  we  have  taken  particular  pains  to  determine 
what  would  be  a  practical  rule  to  apply  regarding  the 
size  of  the  flock  to  be  maintained  and  have  come  to  the 
conclusion,  where  the  farm  is  not  too  large  to  be  man- 
aged by  one  man  successfully,  that  IQ  hens  to  the  acre 
is  about  all  that  can  be  handled  efficiently.  Again,  this 
implies  that  the  poultry  department  will  be  so  arranged 
and  the  flock  so  housed  as  to  make  every  move  count  in 
their  care.  A  farm  of  160  acres  would  give,  under  this 
rule,  a  flock  of  say  1,600  laying  hens.    This  is  the  maxi- 


38  The  Modern  Farm  Hev 

mum  that  can  be  carried  as  a  side-line.  If  it  gets  beyond 
that  point  it  will  soon  be  crowding  the  other  farm  work, 
and  a  flock  of  this  size  improperly  handled  will  crowd 
any  man,  as  it  is.  But  an  energetic  farmer  and  his  good 
wife  can,  under  proper  surroundings,  maintain  a  side- 
line flock  under  this  rule  practically  the  entire  year  with- 
out additional  labor. 

An  80-acre  farm  should  support  800  fowls  on  a  side- 
line basis  and  120  acres  1,200  layers.  Flocks  ranging 
from  500  to  1500  layers  will  be  found  to  be  the  most 
efficient  for  average  market  egg  production  on  a  side- 
line basis,  and  will  be  sufficient  to  provide  work  for  the 
farmer  during  the  seasons  of  the  year  when  his  general 
farm  work  demands  the  least  of  his  attention.  At  any 
rate,  the  10  hens  to  the  acre  rule,  is  probably  as  safe 
an  arbitrary  rule  as  can  be  given.  It  is  well  to  keep  it 
in  mind  when  one  is  apt  to  indulge  in  overestimates 
and  feel  the  urge  to  try  and  do  too  much.  If  one  or- 
ganizes the  work  and  handles  flocks  of  the  sizes  indi- 
cated, for  profit,  not  for  numbers,  the  greatest  pleas- 
ure and  profit  will  be  returned  by  the  hens. 

Reducing  Labor  and  Overhead  to  a  Minimum  by 
Proper  Planning 

It  is  well  to  devote  some  time  with  a  pencil  and  a 
pad  of  paper  to  "figuring"  how  one  can  reduce  labor 
and  overhead  to  a  minimum  in  advance  of  the  actual 
launching  of  the  poultry  venture  or  side-line. 

The  first  consideration  is  the  proper  location  of  the 
various  buildings  with  reference  to  accessibility  from 
the  house,  in  order  to  reduce  the  steps  necessary  in  car- 
ing for  the  flock.  This  is  an  important  item,  far  more 
important  than  the  average  person  stops  to  consider. 
A  few  extra  steps  several  times  a  day  will  amount  to 
several  extra  miles  in  the  course  of  a  month  and  a  good 


A  Practical  Farm  Flock   Unit  39 

many  miles  in  the  course  of  a  year.  Besides,  it  con- 
sumes time,  makes  the  poultry  work  a  burden  and,  gen- 
erally, might  be  eliminated  entirely  by  wise  planning 
in  the  beginning. 

Speaking  generally,  the  poultry  buildings  should  be 
in  the  general  direction  of  the  other  farm  buildings. 
Many  people  place  them  in  an  isolated  position  in  the 
opposite  direction  from  the  other  farm  buildings.  This 
increases  the  steps  and  the  labor  necessary  in  handling 
the  flock,  as  the  feed  required  will  have  to  be  carried 
or  hauled  an  additional  distance  from  the  cribs  or  bins. 

If  brooder  houses  are  to  be  constructed,  they  should  be 
planned  to  be  the  nearest  to  the  residence  of  the  other 
poultry  buildings.  Many  people  build  the  laying  house 
first  and  later  when  they  come,  to  build  the  brooder 
house  have  to  place  it  farther  away  from  the  residence 
because  the  laying  house  was  placed  near  the  residence. 
This  is  a  mistake,  from  an  efficiency  standpoint.  The 
brooder  house  will  require  more  frequent  visits  from 
the  caretaker  than  the  laying  house  and  it  should  be 
nearest  the  residence. 

Colony  coops  should  be  built  on  runners.  This  will, 
in  the  end  provide  for  a  considerable  saving  in  the 
costs  of  handling  the  growing  stock.  Colony  houses 
built  on  runners  are  practically  self-cleaning,  as  they 
are  simply  moved  to  a  new  location  by  hitching  a  team 
to  the  runners,  leaving  the  droppings  behind.  Some 
of  these  will  doubtless  be  used  for  brooding  baby  chicks 
and  they  should  be  planned  with  substantial  floors. 
These  can,  during  the  winter,  be  used  for  surplus  lay- 
ing stock,  or  to  house  the  breeding  pens,  which  are  best 
kept  separate  from  the  general  laying  flock. 

Another  great  labor-saving  aid  which  should  be  uti- 
lized to  the  fullest  advantage  is  the  hopper  system  of 
feeding.    No  busy  farmer  can  expect  to  attain  the  best 


40  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

results  from  his  flock  if  he  does  not  indulge  in  mash 
feeding,  and  this  will  require  hoppers,  and  from  the 
labor-saving  standpoint,  the  hoppers  more  than  justify 
their  existence,  especially  in  the  case  of  growing  young 
stock. 

"Where  hoppers  are  utilized  to  the  fullest  advantage, 
it  will  be  possible  to  handle  the  young  stock  on  range 
with  a  single  visit  per  day,  largely  to  see  that  every- 


Fig.   C — A   Farm   Poultry   House   Built  of   Hollow    Building  Tile   with 
Full   Monitor   Roof. 

thing  is  all  right,  and,  if  necessary,  to  close  the  doors 
of  the  coops  at  night  to  protect  the  flock  against  enemies 
of  field  or  forest.  The  hoppers  can  be  built  large  enough 
so  that  they  will  require  filling  but  once  a  week.  This 
greatly  reduces  the  overhead  and  labor  necessary  to 
cam'  the  young  stock  to  maturity,  at  the  season  when 
the  farmer  is  rushed  the  most  by  his  general  farm 
work. 

Likewise,  there  is  a  great  advantage  in  using  the 
proper  equipment  to  water  the  flock.  Large  founts 
should  be  purchased,  founts  that  can  be  kept  from 
freezing  during  winter  weather.  This  will  not  only 
insure  the  maximum  egg  supply  during  cold  weather, 
and  the  abundance  of  water  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with 
it,  but  it  will  greatly  lessen  the  labor  involved  in  keep- 


A  Practical  Farm   Flock    Unit  41 

ing  the  water  supply  normal.  Much  money  can  be 
wasted  in  starting  out  by  buying  small  and  inadequate 
founts.     Take  your  time,  and  select  the  best. 

If  you  build  a  long,  continuous  laying  house,  make 
plans  for  a  few  outside  doors  along  the  center  of  the 
building.  These  can  serve  a  double  purpose  of  doors 
and  ventilators.  They  will  save  many  unnecessary 
steps,  where  it  is  desired  to  get  into  center  pens,  as  one 
will  not  have  to  go  to  either  end  of  the  long  building 
and  pass  through  several  other  pens  in  order  to  reach 
the  desired  one. 

In  placing  one-inch  mesh  wire  over  the  open  front 
openings  of  the  pens,  it  will  prove  a  great  time  and 
labor  saver  to  place  the  wire  on  frames  which  are  hinged 
and  made  to  fit  the  openings.  These  can  be  opened 
up  when  it  comes  time  to  clean  out  the  litter,  and  will 
more  than  pay  for  themselves  in  one  season  because 
of  the  labor  they  will  save  in  handling  the  litter.  A 
wheelbarrow  or  wagon  box  can  be  backed  up  to  the 
window  or  opening  and  the  litter  forked  directly  into 
them,  thus  eliminating  at  least  one  extra  handling.  If 
the  poultry  flock  is  large,  it  will  pay,  if  possible,  to  in- 
stall a  litter  carrier  on  an  overhead  track  such  as  is 
used  in  dairy  and  horse  barns. 

Take  pains  with  the  cement  floor  you  lay  in  your 
houses  so  that  they  will  be  absolutely  dry.  There  is 
one  sure  way  to  insure  a  dry  floor  and  that  is  to  use 
a  layer  of  hollow  tile  under  the  cement.  The  dead  air 
(]paces  in  the  tile  prevent  dampness  coming  through. 
We  have  used  such  floor  ourself  for  several  seasons 
now,  through  all  kinds  of  weather,  and  it  has  never 
been  the  least  bit  damp.  This  is  more  of  an  item  in 
the  labor  bill  than  the  beginner  may  think,  for  it  gets 
away  from  the  almost  daily  changing  of  the  litter  in 
damp  weather.     And,  one  may  rest  assured,  the  litter 


42  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

has  to  be  changed  at  the  first  sign  of  dampness,  if  the 
health  and  efficiency  of  the  flock  is  to  be  maintained. 
The  few  extra  cents  spent  in  hollow  tile  will  be  repaid 
time  and  again  in  the  course  of  the  year. 

As  a  general  rule,  do  not  plan  nests  under  the  drop- 
ping board.  They  are  hard  to  get  at,  hard  to  keep  clean, 
and  provide  too  attractive  a  hiding  place  for  lice  and 
mites.  Do  not  build  nests  or  install  nests  that  cannot 
be  easily  and  quickly  cleaned.  This  is  of  vast  import- 
ance to  the  man  who  is  producing  eggs  either  for  mar- 
ket or  for  hatching  purposes,  and  who  is  not?  The 
bottoms  of  the  nests  should  be  removable,  as  shown  else- 
where in  this  book,  so  that  they  can  be  cleaned  in  a  jiffy. 

Many  other  labor  saving  devices  and  plans  will  sug- 
gest themselves  to  the  thinking  man.  Use  them,  utilize 
them  to  the  fullest  advantage.  They  mean  money  in 
the  pocket. 


CHAPTER  III. 
The  Selection  of  Breeds 


The  Meaning  of  Breeds — the  Breeds  of  Economic  Value  to 

THE  Farmer — How  to  Select  the  Breed  to  Fit 

THE  Purpose  In  Mind — the  Meaning  of 

Strains  and  Their  Value 

Many  people  are  confused  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
term  ''breed."  It  carries  a  definite  meaning  and  when 
incorrectly  applied  often  causes  misunderstanding.  The 
Standard  of  Perfection,  published  by  the  American 
Poultry  Association,  which  is  the  final  authority  on 
breeds  and  breed  types  for  the  guidance  of  the  breed- 
er and  the  judge  in  the  show  room,  divides  fowls  into 
three  main  divisions.  First,  we  have  Classes,  then 
Breeds  and,  finally.  Varieties. 

The  term  "Classes"  refers  to  those  breeds  and  va- 
rieties belonging  to  general  types  having  points  in  com- 
mon and  classed  usually  according  to  the  region  in 
which  they  originated.  Thus,  the  American  Classes, 
Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Reds  and  Buckeyes,  originated  in 
the  United  States;  the  Mediterranean  Classes,  Leg- 
horns, Anconas  and  Minorcas  originated  in  Italy,  Spain 
and  the  Mediterranean  countries ;  the  Asiatics,  Cochins, 
Langshans,  originated  in  Asiatic  countries;  the  Eng- 
lish Classes,  Orpingtons,  Dorkings,  originated  in  Eng- 
land, etc.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  term  "Class"  is 
very  broad  and  includes  a  wide,  general  range  of  fowl. 

The  term  "Breed"  is  narrower  in  its  meaning,  but 
still  somewhat  broader  in  its  application  than  general 


44  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

usage  among  breeders  and  poultry  raisers  indicates. 
Generally,  it  applies  to  a  race  of  fowls  having  the  same 
general  size,  type  andl  shape.  The  Plymouth  Rock 
breed,  for  instance,  applies  to  all  fowls  having  the  es- 
tablished Rock  type,  size  and  shape  without  reference 
to  color  markings.  Thus,  it  may  be  used  to  mean 
Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  White,  Buff  or  Partridge 
Rocks,  In  the  case  of  Leghorns,  it  may  be  used  to  mean 
White,  Black,  Buff,  Silver  or  Red  Pyle.  In  Reds,  it 
applies  to  either  Single  or  Rose  Comb  Rhode  Island 
Reds. 

The  term  "Variety"  is  a  further  sub-division  of  the 
term  "Breed."  It  means  a  certain  definite  type  of 
fowl  coming  under  the  general  breed  classification. 
Generally,  the  name  of  the  variety  is  taken  from  its 
most  noticeable  external  characteristic,  namely,  color 
marking.  Thus,  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  are  a  va- 
riety of  the  Plymouth  Rock  breed.  White  Leghorns 
are  a  variety  of  the  Leghorn  breed,  and  we  have  a  fur- 
ther subdivision  here  of  Rose  and  Single  Comb.  It  is 
improper  to  call  a  variety  a  breed,  in  the  larger  sense 
and,  likewise,  a  breed  is  not  a  variety,  except  in  one 
or  two  isolated  cases. 

The  Breeds  of  Economic  Value  to  the  Farmer 

There  is  a  multitude  of  breeds  and  varieties  of  chick- 
ens. Many  exist  merely  because  of  their  unusual  color 
markings  or  extraordinary  types.  They  have  little  or 
no  economic  importance,  being  bred  chiefly  as  a  past 
time  and  to  amuse  the  fanciers  of  the  ultra  fancy  per- 
suasion. 

For  all  practical  importance,  the  choice,  or  the  in- 
terest of  the  farmer  will  be  confined  to  a  very  few  gen- 
eral breeds  arid  varieties  under  them  because  only  a 


The  Selection  of  Breeds 


45 


few  have  been  bred  to  a  high  state  of  productivity  and 
are  of  economic  importance. 

Leaving  sentiment  out  of  consideration  and  speaking 
from  the  standpoint  of  ultimate  profit,  the  farmer  will 
be  limited  in  his  selection  at  the  present  time  to  the 
following  breeds:  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Reds,  Brahmas, 
Leghorns  or  Minorcas.  He  may  want  to  include  the 
Orpingtons  and  perhaps  he  should,  but  please  keep  in 
mind  that  this  discussion  is 
limited  to  the  economic  side 
of  the  question ;  namely,  the 
value  of  the  breed  for  either 
meat  or  eggs.  There  are 
many  reasons  why  the  Eng- 
lish fowl  with  their  white- 
skinned  characteristics  are 
not  in  favor  for  commercial 
purposes.  The  English  fowl 
are  not  any  better  layers 
than  our  American  classes, 
although  they  are  often  just 
as  good.  From  a  fancier's 
standpoint,  the  Orpington 
possesses  marked  advan- 
tages, but  we  incline  to  the  belief  that  the  farmer  will 
not  find  it  as  desirable,  everything  considered,  as  the 
breeds  mentioned. 

These  breeds  may  be  further  classified  according  to 
the  chief  purpose  which  they  have  been  bred  to  serve. 
The  Rocks,  Wyandottes  and  Reds  may  be  designated 
as  General  Purpose  Fowl,  because  they  have  been  de- 
veloped with  the  double  purpose  in  mind  of  securing 
good  layers  and  a  good  market  fowl.  In  other  words, 
they  have  size.  The  Brahma  is  the  sole  representative 
of  the  Meat  breeds  which  is  now  bred  to  any  extent  in 


Fig.    7 — Single    Comb    White 
Leghorn   Hen. 


46 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


this  country.  The  Cochin  has  practically  passed  out. 
The  Brahma  is  still  the  favorite  for  soft  roasters  and 
gives  some  wonderful  results  when  crossed  with  White 
Rocks  for  this  purpose.  It  may  generally  be  ruled  out 
of  consideration,  however,  for  the  average  farmer  is 
not  in  a  position  to  produce  fowls  for  market  at  a 
profit.  The  average  farmer  must  have  eggs  in  order 
to  secure  the  maximum  profit. 

The  Leghorns  and  the  Minorcas  belong  to  the  Egg 
breeds,   their  chief  purpose 

□  being  the  production  of 
eggs.  This  does  not  mean 
that  they  are  worthless  as 
market  fowl,  as  so  many  peo- 
ple claim.  The  Minorcas 
compares  favorably  in  size 
with  many  of  the  General 
Purpose  breeds,  and  many 
strains  of  the  Leghorns  are 
bred  over-size  and  practical- 
ly as  large  as  the  Rocks  or 
I   Reds.    Because  of  their  rap- 


id    rate     of     development. 

Pig.    8 — White    Wyandotte    Hen,    i        -i  i  i? 

Representative  of  a  Splendid  Breed.    brOllcrS    Can    be    grOWU    from 

Leghorn  stock  to  practically 
the  same  weight  in  the  same  time  as  from  the  General 
Purpose  breeds.  This  means  that  Leghorn  surplus  cock- 
erels can  be  marketed  early  in  the  spring  to  the  same 
advantage  as  any  other  breeds. 

The  farmer,  if  a  profit  is  to  be  won  from  the  poultry 
work,  must  make  his  choice  from  these  breeds.  They 
are  the  breeds  which  have  received  the  most  attention 
from  the  breeders  and  have  been  developed  with  cer- 
tain purposes  in  mind,  all  of  which  are  grounded  in 
some  economic  advantage.     The  man  who  takes  up  an- 


The  Selection  of  Breeds 


47 


other  breed  is  merely  depriving  himself  of  the  advan- 
tages offered  by  breed  progress. 


How^  TO  Select  the  Breed  to  Fit  the  Purpose  in  Mind 

It  should  not  be  a  hard  matter  to  select  the  breed 
to  keep,  if  sentiment  and  mere  fancy  is  left  out  of  con- 
sideration. Every  farmer  will  have  a  definite  purpose 
in  mind  before  taking  up  poultry  work  seriously.  The 
man  who  takes  up  poultry  breeding  as  a  side-line  will, 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  desire  eggs  for  market  before 
all  else.  The  man  who  wishes  to  devote  his  entire  at- 
tention to  poultry  breeding 
may  have  other  goals  in 
mind,  such  as  the  produc- 
tion of  fancy  stock  for  the 
show  room. 

Whatever  the  purpose, 
each  man  can  ascertain  it  by 
asking  himself  what  the 
chief  motive  in  his  mind  is. 
Perhaps  he  will  want  to  run 
a  hatchery.  Then  he  will 
have  to  determine  the  most 
popular  breeds  and  cater  to 
the  popular  demand.     And 

in  the  end,  that  popular  demand  is  influenced  by  the 
same  factors  which  would  influence  him  if  he  were  going 
directly  into  the  poultry  business  himself.  It  is,  in  the 
final  analysis,  from  the  economic  standpoint,  either  mar- 
ket eggs  or  market  poultry.  Where  flocks  are  main- 
tained merely  for  home  use,  or  largely  for  that  purpose, 
then  other  considerations  will  enter  in. 

Poultry    breeds    have   been    developed    with    definite 
purposes  in  mind.     One  race  of  breeders  have  sought 


Fig. 


Single   Comb   Rhode   Island 
Red  Hen. 


48 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


egg  yield  more  than  they  have  sought  anything  else 
and  they  have  brought  down  to  us  the  egg  breeds.  An- 
other class  of  breeders  have  been  looking  for  a  market 
fowl  and  have  bred  such  fowls  and  have  given  us  the 
Brahmas  and  the  other  fowls  belonging  to  the  meat 
breeds.  Still  another  class  have  sought  to  produce  a 
fowl  of  good  size,  that  would  make  a  good  market  fowl 
and,  at  the  same  time,  lay  a  large  number  of  eggs. 
And  so  we  have  the  general 
or  dual  purpose  of  breeds. 
All  the  farmer  has  to  do  is 
to  determine  first  what  ob- 
ject he  has  in  wanting  to 
breed  poultry,  and  then 
make  his  selection  in  the 
proper  breed.  He  cannot 
go  far  wrong. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as 
the  "best"  breed  of  poul- 
try. There  are  a  number  of 
*'best"  breeds  and  we  feel 
that  we  have  covered  the 
outstanding  ones  in  our  rec- 
ommendations above.  The  final  choice  must  depend 
upon  individual  desire.  There  are  some  considerations, 
however,  which  must  be  taken  into  account  and  one 
should  not  allow  prejudices  to  influence  him  adversely 
in   meeting  these  considerations. 

If  eggs  are  to  be  the  principal  object  in  your  poultry 
work,  do  not  make  the  mistake  of  keeping  any  but  an 
egg  breed.  Commercial  poultrymen  have  tried  time 
and  again  to  make  a  "go"  of  it  at  egg  farming  with 
flocks  of  dual  purpose  fowls  and  have  not  succeeded, 
except  in  cases  where  exceptional  conditions  favored 
them.     From  a  strict  profit  standpoint   there  can   be 


Fig.    10 — Columbian    Plymouth 
Rock  Hen. 


The  Selection  of  Breeds  49 

no  doubt  but  that  the  Single  Comb  White  Leghorn  is 
the  most  efficient  fowl  of  all,  but  we  are  not  always 
looking  for  the  maximum  profit.  We  do  not  make  this 
statement  because  of  individual  prejudice  or  favoritism, 
but  upon  the  authority  of  various  experiment  station 
investigations. 

For  instance,  in  point  of  feed  consumed,  it  was  found 
at  the  New  Jersey  Egg-laying  Contests  that  the  amount 
of  feed  consumed  by  heavy  laying  hens  per  year  ac- 
cording to  breed  was  as  follows: 

Leghorns    76  pounds 

Wyandottes    80  pounds 

R.  I.  Reds 87  pounds 

Plymouth  Rocks 90  pounds 

The  United  States  Government  Poultry  Farm  at 
Beltsville,  Md.,  has  carried  on  some  experiments  along 
the  same  line,  but  has  gone  a  step  further  and  tabu- 
lated some  figures  to  show  how  much  feed  each  breed 
requires  in  order  to  produce  one  dozen  eggs: 

Leghorns    4.8  pounds 

Leghorn    yearlings 5.5  pounds 

Dual  purpose 6.7  pounds 

Dual    purpose    yearlings 9.6  pounds 

Other  figures  might  be  cited  along  similar  lines,  but 
these  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the  Leghorn  hen  or 
pullet  is  the  most  efficient  egg  producer  that  has  yet 
come  under  the  eye  of  the  investigators.  An  additional 
point  to  be  considered  is  the  fact  that  a  lower  housing 
cost  per  bird  is  required  with  the  egg  breeds  than  with 
the  larger  fowl,  as  they  do  not  require  as  much  floor 
or  ground  space  as  the  larger  fowls.  Roughly  speaking, 
dual  purpose  fowls  require  one-third  more  floor  space 
in  buildings,  at  least,  than  the  egg  breeds,  and  the  meat 


50 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


breeds,  such  as  Brahmas  and  Langshans  require  even 
more  room.  This  will  amount  to  a  considerable  item 
in  overhead  cost  on  a  place  where  large  flocks  are  to 
be   maintained. 

The  Leghorns  have  had   it  pretty  much   their  own 
way  at  the   egg-laying  contests  so   long   that  there  is 
no    disputing    the   statement    that    they    are    the   most 
outstanding    egg-laying    breed    now    known    to    man. 
But    large    individual    rec- 
ords have  also  been  made  by 
Rhode  Island  Reds  in  offi- 
cial contests,  and  by  Rocks 
and    Wyandottes    in    lesser 
degree.     The  first  outstand- 
ing layer  developed  by  an 
egg-laying  contest  was  Lady 
Show-You,  a  White  Plym- 
outh Rock.    Her  record  was 
more  than  260  eggs. 

The  most  outstanding  de- 
velopment in  the  breeding 
of  high  record  layers  has 
been,  however,  among  the 
White  Leghorns,  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  this 
breed  has  more  universally  engaged  the  attention  of 
the  commercial  poultrymen  than  any  other.  There  are 
dozens  and  dozens  of  Leghorns  having  egg  records  over 
200  eggs  each  in  one  year  now  in  the  country,  and  sev- 
eral breeders  have  pullet  records  running  over  300 
eggs.  One  breeder  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  for  instance, 
has  made  a  tremendous  development  along  this  line 
and  has  close  to  three  dozen  such  layers  to  his  credit. 

Many  farmers  are  prejudiced  against  Leghorns,  look- 
ing upon  them  as  an  unsatisfactory  fowl  for  general 


Fig.    11 — Barred   Pljmouth    Rock 
Pullet. 


The  Selection  of  Breeds  51 

farm  purposes.  We  are  not  presenting  a  brief  for  any 
particular  breed,  as  it  is  of  slight  consequence  to  us 
as  to  the  breed  selected,  but  we  do  feel  the  responsibili- 
ty of  presenting  the  facts.  Each  man  can  then  judge 
for  himself. 

The  dual  purpose  fowls  are,  in  many  respects,  wonder- 
ful birds.  Personally,  we  have  always  had  more  than 
passing  interest  in  the  Rhode  Island  Reds  and  the  Ply- 
mouth Rocks.  We  have  compared  them  side  by  side 
and  have  found  them  to  be  wonderful  fowls  in  every 
respect.  The  Rhode  Island  Reds  are  generally  great 
layers  and,  if  there  is  any  choice,  are  probably  better 
layers  than  any  of  the  other  general  or  dual  purpose 
fowl.  There  are,  however,  one  or  two  strains  of  Barred 
Plymouth  Rocks  which  will  hold  their  own  as  lay- 
ers with  any  other  breed,  the  Leghorns  alone  excepted. 
One  or  two  strains  of  Wyandottes  have  also  been  bred 
up  to  good  egg  yields,  but  just  now  we  are  not  discuss- 
ing strains  but  breeds  in  their  entirety. 

The  Meaning  of  Strains  and  Theib  Value 

The  strain  is  vastly  more  important  than  the  breed 
or  variety.  One  flock  of  fowls  may  make  a  poor  record 
during  the  year  and  another  flock  of  the  same  variety 
and  breed  on  a  neighboring  farm  may  earn  a  substantial 
profit.  The  difference  is  likely  to  be  in  the  strain,  other 
things  being  equal. 

There  is  confusion  in  the  minds  even  of  certain  poul- 
try breeders  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  term  "strain", 
judging  from  their  advertising  matter.  A  strain  is  a 
certain  definite  family  of  fowls  within  a  given  variety 
and  breed,  so  bred  that  the  family  characteristics  have 
been  sufficiently  established  along  a  definite  line  to  give 
them  a  distinction  over  ordinary  fowls  in  the  same  va- 


52  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

riety  and  breed.  A  strain  is  not  a  variety  of  fowls,  and 
the  fact  that  a  man  breeds  a  strain  does  not  make  it 
necessary  that  he  should  have  originated  his  family  him- 
self. But  the  right  to  claim  one's  own  strain  is  loosely 
used  at  the  present  time  by  thousands  of  breeders. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  that  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  the  one  "best"  breed  or  variety  of  chickens; 
that  strain  is  what  counts  for  the  most  in  this  respect. 
By  that  we  mean  that  there  are  certain  breeders  in  al- 
most every  variety  and  breed  who  have,  through  long 
patience  and  effort,  succeeded  in  breeding  up  families 
of  fowls  within  their  varieties  and  breeds  that  are  out- 
standing in  utility  performance  or  show  room  quality, 
as  the  case  may  be.  One  can  find  strains  in  almost  any 
breed  or  variety  that  will  pay  a  good  profit  under  care- 
ful handling,  while  other  apparently  well-bred  fowls  in 
the  same  breed  or  variety  are  practically  worthless  for 
any  purpose.  The  difference  lies  in  the  breeding,  in  the 
inherited  characteristics,  in  the  family  or  strain  blood. 

There  are,  of  course,  certain  breeds  in  which  more 
strains  have  been  developed  than  in  other  breeds  and 
varieties ;  and  the  more  strains  there  are  developed  along 
some  definite  line,  the  more  the  influence  will  be  felt  on 
the  entire  breed  and  variety  the  country  over.  The  re- 
sult will  be  to  elevate  the  standard  of  the  entire  breed 
and  variety.  That  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  Single 
Comb  White  Leghorns  are  so  popular  in  the  country  for 
commercial  egg  farming ;  more  strains  for  high  egg-lay- 
ing ability  have  been  developed  in  this  variety  the  past 
20  years  than  in  any  other. 

Many  people  make  the  common  mistake  of  thinking 
that  if  one  flock  of  hens  in  a  given  variety  make  good 
records  that  it  is  the  breed  or  "kind"  that  counts  and 
that  any  fowls  masquerading  under  that  same  breed  or 
variety  name  will  be  good  layers.    That  is  why  so  many 


The  Selection  of  Breeds  53 

peopie  are  constantly  changing  "kinds."  They  do 
not  take  into  consideration  the  value  of  strain;  they 
look  more  at  the  feathers,  in  their  search  for  the  same 
"kind." 

It  will  not  require  a  great  deal  of  study,  even  for  the 
novice,  to  soon  learn  what  the  best  strains  are  in  the  va- 
riety he  selects.  An  examination  of  the  advertising 
pages  of  any  good  poultry  journal  will  soon  give  a 
cross-section  of  the  best  breeders  in  each  variety.  Any 
editor  will  be  glad  to  advise  you,  if  you  are  in  doubt. 
But  do  not  make  the  mistake  so  many  people  do  of  buy- 
ing into  a  strain  second  or  third  hand.  This  always  is 
unsatisfactory.  It  pays  to  go  to  headquarters  and  pay 
the  price.  To  buy  second  or  third  hand  is  to  acquire  all 
of  the  faults  in  management  and  care  that  the  other 
fellow  has  foisted  upon  the  good  strain,  in  the  majority 
of  cases. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks 


Iowa  Semi-Monitor  House — Missouri  Fool-Proof  House — The 

Minnesota  Type  House — The  Lord  Farms  Small  Flock 

House — Colony  Houses,  Brooding  Houses  and 

Coops — Nests,  Hoppers  and  Appliances 

The  first  use  of  the  Iowa  Semi-Monitor  Poultry  House 
is  generally  credited  to  Charles  Laros,  an  Iowa  com- 
mercial poultryman  living  in  Poweshiek  county.  Mr. 
Laros  practices  intensive  poultry  culture,  carrying  larg- 
er flocks  to  the  acre  than  the  average  farmer  will  find 


Fig.    12 — Iowa    Semi-Monitor    Type    Laying    House   Accommodating 
1,000    Layers. 

practicable,  but  his  problems  of  housing  were  essentially 
the  same  as  those  confronting  the  farmer.  He  found  that 
it  was  hard  to  secure  proper  ventilation  from  his  shed- 
roof  type  laying  houses  without  also  having  drafty  pens. 
The  result  of  his  experiments  in  this  direction  was  the 
first  Iowa  Semi-Monitor  House.  It  later  came  to  the 
attention  of  the  extension  department  of  Iowa  State  Col- 
lege and  was  advocated  widely  as  the  most  desirable 
farm  flock  house. 


56 


The.  Modern  Form  Hen 


There  was  nothing  essentially  new  in  the  design  as 
the  half-monitor  type  of  construction  had  been  advo- 
cated by  Dr.  P.  T.  Woods  some  10  or  12  years  before, 
and  had  been  used  by  other  authorities  with  variations 
in  the  intervening  period. 

The  distinctive  feature  of  the  Iowa  Semi-Monitor 
House  is  the  fact  that  it  secures  proper  ventilation  for 
the  laying  flock  in  all  seasons  and  eliminates  the  ills 
attending  stuffy,  damp  and  impure  air.  Many  people 
have  objected  to  the  semi-monitor  house  because  it  was 
more  expensive  in  initial  cost  to  build.  The  outlay  of 
a  few  extra  dollars  should  not  be  questioned  when  such 
additional  outlay  removes  one  of  the  most  serious  ob- 
stacles to  proper  poultry  housing.  No  doubt  other  forms 
of  construction  will  secure  practically  the  same  results 
in  ventilation  at  less  cost,  but  we  do  not  know  of  a  lay- 
ing house  now  in  use  that  secures  all  of  the  advantages 
of  the  Iowa  Semi-Monitor  Poultry  House  that  can  be 
constructed  for  the  same  money. 


PRedAtieo  Boom/M 


Fig.    13 — Cross-section   of  Iowa   Semi-Monitor   House. 

The  semi-monitor  poultry  house,  as  in  the  case  of  hog 
houses,  makes  it  possible  for  the  sunlight  to  reach 
all  parts  of  the  interior  of  the  house  during  the  day- 
time.   Sunshine  is  the  best  germicide  in  the  world,  and 


Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks         57 


this  value  should  not  be  overlooked.  Shed  roof  houses 
may  be  constructed  to  secure  practically  the  same  ad- 
vantage in  ventilation,  but  they  cannot  be  built  as  wide 
as  the  semi-monitor  house  and  also  secure  a  flood  of  sun- 
light in  the  rear  corners.  Consequently,  the  shed-roof 
type  house  can  seldom  be  built  over  16  feet  wide  and 
secure  sunlight  on  the  droppings  board,  without  run- 
ning them  up  too  high  in  front.  This  is,  in  itself,  a 
waste  in  money  and  tends  to  make  the  houses  exces- 
sively cold  in  bad  weather. 

The  Iowa  Semi-Monitor  Poultry  House  is  built  in 
units  22  feet  wide 
by  24  feet  long. 
Mr.  D.  E.  Carlson, 
an  Iowa  farmer 
mentioned  in  a 
preceding  chapter, 
uses  this  house  on 
his  farm  for  his 
side-line  flock  and 
he  has  made  the 
house  24  feet  wide 
and  considers  that 
it  is  an  improve- 
ment over  the  orig-  ^'s 
inal  plan.  We  are 
inclined    to    agree  with  him. 

Allowing  three  and  one-half  square  feet  of  floor  space 
to  each  hen,  a  pen  22x24  feet  in  size  will  accomodate 
150  layers.  The  same  house  will  accomodate  250  Leg- 
horns, affording  two  square  feet  per  layer  as  many  breed- 
ers do  and  speaking  in  round  numbers.  The  house  is 
built  in  long,  continuous  style  where  larger  flocks  are 
desired,  saving  in  construction  costs  and  bringing  the 
flock  all  under  one  roof.    Mr.  D,  E.  Carlson  has  two  of 


14 — Floor  Plan  of  One  Unit  of  Pen. 
Iowa  Semi-Monitor  House. 


58  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

these  houses,  one,  24x96  feet  in  length  and  another, 
24x127  feet  in  length.  The  plans  given  will  be  found 
to  be  self-explanatory. 

This  house  can  be  used  for  poultry  of  practically  all 
ages  and  for  all  purposes.  Muslin  curtains  can  be  placed 
in  the  shed  or  open  front  part  and  baby  chicks  brooded 
there  with  colony  hovers  or  brooders,  or  the  laying  hens 
can  be  placed  in  this  part  of  the  house  and  the  chicks 
given  the  rear  and  more  protected  portion,  or  one  or  two 
pens  may  be  given  over  entirely  to  chicks  until  they 
are  old  enough  to  go  to  range. 

Missouri  Pool-Proof  House 

The  Missouri  Fool-Proof  House  was  given  to  the  poul- 
try world  by  Prof.  T.  E.  Quisenberry  and  was  the  result 
of  his  work  at  the  Missouri  Poultry  Experiment  Station 
at  Mountain  Grove.     The  term  "fool-proof"  is  applied 


mmt 


Fig.    15 — A    Row    of   Missouri    Fool-Proof    Poultry    Houses. 

to  this  house  because  the  ventilating  device  cannot  be 
tampered  with,  is  built  right  into  the  wall  structure  and 
works  constantly  in  all  kinds  of  weather.  It  has  the 
advantage  of  the  open-front  house  and,  at  the  same  time, 
gets  away  from  the  soiling  of  the  litter  in  the  interior 
of  the  house  so  common  when  sudden  storms  come  up. 
The  chief  feature  of  the  house  is  the  shutter  ventila- 
tor which  is  made  of  6-inch  strips  set  on  an  incline,  so 
as  to  admit  a  free  passage  of  air  but  to  prevent  rain  or 


Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks         59 

snow  beating  into  the  interior  of  the  house  and  damag- 
ing the  litter.  This  feature  eliminates  the  disagreeable 
task  of  getting  up  in  the  middle  of  the  night  to  let  down 
muslin  or  burlap  curtains  over  open  front  openings  to 
protect  litter  and  the  interior  of  the  house,  in  the  event 
of  a  storm. 

The  Fool-Proof  House  is  constructed  on  the  shed-roof 
style  and  the  most  efficient  size  house  of  this  type  is  one 
16  feet  wide.  It  should  not  be  less  than  this,  if  maxi- 
mum comfort  is  to  be  secured  roosting  fowls  at  night 
and  it  cannot  be  greater  unless  extra  roof  studding  is 
used.  Some  farmer  have  constructed  them  20  feet  wide 
with  good  results,  but  they  cannot  be  wider.  They  are 
built  in  the  long,  continuous  style  depending  upon  the 
number  of  fowls  to  be  accomodated.    The  unit  is  a  pen 


Fig.  16 — Front  Elevation,  Missouri  Fool-Proof  House;  also  detail  of 
Shutter  Construction. 


20  feet  long  and  16  feet  to  20  feet  deep.  One  pen  20x20 
will  accomodate  about  200  Leghorns  and  a  less  number 
of  fowls  of  larger  breeds. 

"When  built  as  large  laying  houses  in  sections  20x20 
feet  they  should  be  about  9  feet  high  in  front  and  S^^ 
feet  high  in  the  rear.  Where  built  in  shorter  widths,  as 
16  feet  for  instance,  the  front  can  be  made  8  feet  high 
and  5}4  feet  high  at  the  rear. 


60  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

The  fool-proof  method  of  ventilation  can  be  adapted 
to  any  shed-roof  type  house  with  good  results.  It  is 
equally  serviceable  in  colony  houses  and  small  laying 
flock  houses.  In  fact,  it  can  be  used  on  practically  any 
style  of  poultry  house  to  good  advantage. 

The  fool-proof  ventilating  device  should  appeal  to 
any  busy  farmer  because  it  answers  the  ventilation  prob- 
lem and  removes  much  of  the  labor  necessary  under  oth- 
er forms  of  construction,  particularly  the  open-front 
house.  It  has  the  advantage  of  requiring  no  extra  at- 
tention, and  this  is  something  every  busy  man  will  ap- 
preciate. 

The  Minnesota  Type  House 

The  Minnesota  Type  House  is  an  adaptation  of  the 
shed-roof  type  house  to  the  more  severe  climate  of  north- 


n 


n 


=  ! 


u 


Ccncrttt  foun^utien  or iailt  < 


Kg.  17 — Fool-Proof  Shutter  Adapted  to    Colony  Coop. 


em  winters.  This  house  is  recommended  for  all  locali 
ties  where  any  amount  of  zero  weather  is  experienced. 
It  is  absolutely  frost-proof,  if  constructed  according  to 
the  plans  given  and  will  keep  a  flock  of  laying  hens  in 


Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks         61 

excellent  condition  and  health,  regardless  of  the  severity 
of  the  climate. 

We  first  ran  across  this  type  of  house  on  the  farm  of 
Hugo  Anderson,  a  poultryman  mentioned  in  a  preced- 
ing chapter.  Mr.  Anderson's  farm  is  located  within  a 
short  distance  of  Duluth,  Minnesota,  where  the  winters 
are  generally  very  severe.  In  fact,  Mr.  Anderson  stated 
to  us  that  it  was  not  uncommon  for  the  temperature  to 
go  down  to  40  degrees  below  zero  and  stay  there  six 
weeks  at  a  time. 

We  visited  Mr.  Anderson's  farm  the  first  of  Decem- 
ber and  saw  yearling  hens  and  cock  birds  which  had 
been  carried  through  the  previous  severe  winter  without 
a  single  frost-bitten  comb!  It  seemed  incredible  and 
we  dropped  the  remark  that  the  cocks  looked  like  cock- 
erels and  the  hens  like  pullets.  It  seemed  impossible 
that  there  should  not  be  a  frosted  comb  in  the  lot.  Mr. 
Anderson  asked  us  to  examine  the  spurs  on  the  male 
birds  and  we  saw  that  they  were,  indeed,  yearlings. 

'  *  You  want  to  know  why  we  don 't  have  frosted  combs 
up  here?"  he  asked.  "Well,  that  is  due  entirely  to  the 
method  we  use  in  the  construction  of  our  laying  houses. 

"The  front  walls  of  the  houses,  which  face  the  south, 
have  two  thicknesses  of  boards,  between  which  there  is 
a  layer  of  heavy  building  paper.  The  other  three  walls 
have  this  outside  double  thickness,  then  there  is  an  in- 
side wall  of  matched  lumber  which  creates  a  dead-air 
space  in  between,  in  addition.  The  most  important  de- 
tail is  found,  however,  in  the  construction  we  use  in  our 
roofs.  Oftentimes,  you  know,  people  take  great  pains 
with  their  side  walls  and  then  forget  aU  about  the  possi- 
bility of  frost  entering  the  house  through  the  roof.  There 
is  also  a  double  wall  with  a  dead-air  space  between  in 
the  roof  construction,  the  under  wall  of  matched  lum- 
ber being  nailed  on  first.    Then  the  space  normally  de- 


62 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


voted  to  a  dead-air  section  is  filled  up  tight  with  saw- 
dust and  the  top  side  of  the  roof  is  put  in  place  and 
roofing  paper  over  it.  This  gives  us  a  roof  construction 
through  which  frost  never  enters,  and  that  is  the  big 
reason  why  we  haven't  any  frosted  combs  on  our  place. 
It  gets  cold  enough  up  here  for  that,  all  right! 

"As  for  ventilation,  I  have  found  that  the  best  plan 
for  our  northern  winters  is  to  have  large,  full-length 
windows  in  every  pen  and  to  keep  these  windows  closed 
tight  during  cold  weather.  Fresh  air  is  supplied  through 
a  ventilator  at  the  top  of  each  window,  which  is  just 
the  width  of  the  windows  and  18  inches  high.  There  is 
one  of  these  for  each  window.    This  ventilator  is  merely 


.. :,  ±\i    fl ■^r' A'^'fTa  a  - sa-  a^- 

^^t 

liiiid:,!  Ij-i^S  iiUlf  1 

H 

ipxr^^'^iiiaj 

Fig.   18 — An   Adaptation  of  the  Minnesota  Laying  House,   as   used  on 
Oak    Dale    Farms. 


a  muslin-covered  frame,  hinged  at  the  bottom  and  which 
opens  inward  at  the  top,  throwing  the  incoming  air 
against  the  roof  and  preventing  it  sweeping  down  upon 
the  backs  of  the  hens.  This  supplies  sufficient  fresh  air, 
and  is  the  plan  recommended  by  the  Minnesota  station 
for  this  climate.  In  storming  weather  the  frame  is 
closed  to  keep  rain  and  snow  out,  and  yet  sufficient  air 
penetrates  the  muslin  to  keep  the  stock  in  excellent  con- 
dition." 


Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks         63 

Mr.  Anderson's  contention  that  this  house  kept  the 
stock  in  excellent  condition  in  his  climate  was  verified 
by  the  writer,  who  had  ample  evidence  before  his  eyes 
in  the  large  flock  of  yearlings  shown  him  by  Mr.  An- 
derson. They  were  in  the  pink  of  condition,  in  such  ex- 
cellent color  and  vigor  that  one  could  hardly  believe 
that  they  were  not  pullets  just  in  off  the  range.  The 
fact  that  these  yearlings  made  a  40  per  cent  egg  record 
the  day  we  visited  the  farm,  December  1,  also  indicates 
something. 

The  Lord  Farms  Small  Flock  House 

The  accompanying  plans  illustrate  a  laying  house 
that  is  particularly  well  adapted  to  general  farm  usage. 


Fig.    19 — Front    Elevation    Lord    Farms    Small    Flock    Laying    House    For 
150   to   200   Layers. 


It  was  perfected  by  Lord  Farms,  a  large  commercial  egg 
plant,  which  has  specialized  in  market  eggs  for  20  years 
and  which  has  tried  and  tested  almost  every  kind  of  a 
house  known.  This  house  is  based  upon  the  Cornell 
poultry  house  and  is  practically  identical  with  that 
house,  except  for  a  few  improvements  which  lessen  the 


64 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


labor  involved  in  regulating  the  curtains,  and  which 
provides  more  openings  on  the  front. 

It  is  significant  to  note  that  many  of  the  larger  com- 
mercial breeders  are  getting  away  from  the  large  flock 
unit  houses  and  are  going  back  to  smaller  flocks  and 
building  their  houses  accordingly.  They  have  come  to 
the  conclusion,  and  it  is  a  very  pertinent  one,  that  small 
flocks  make  better  flock  records  than  large  flocks,  under 
average  conditions. 

This  house  has  been  adopted  by  the  Lord  Farms  and 
other  breeders  as  giving  the  very  best  flock  results,  and 
being  the  most  economical  to  construct.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  no  farmer  can  get  along  with  a  house  smaller  than 
the  one  shown  herewith,  if  he  raises  any  poultry  at  all. 


Pig.  20 — Cross-section  Lord  Farms  Small  Flock  Laying  House. 


A  house  20x20  feet,  as  the  one  here  shown,  will  accomo- 
date all  the  way  from  150  to  200  Leghorns,  and  a  small- 
er number  of  larger  fowls.  It  offers  the  advantage  of 
calling  for  a  small  initial  outlay  of  cash  in  buildings  and 
making  it  possible  to  expand  as  the  flock  grows. 

In  these  plans  we  have  a  good  example  of  the  proper 
pitch  to  place  on  a  double  pitch  roof  for  the  best  results. 
The  double-pitched  roof  is  especially  valuable  on  a  wide 


Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks         65 

building.  A  house  with  a  low  wall  behind,  and  a  shed- 
roof  construction,  is  very  hard  to  clean  because  the  at- 
tendant has  to  stoop  over  in  order  to  get  at  the  dropping 
boards,  but  a  double-pitch  roof  on  the  same  building 
will  add  convenience  in  doing  this  work.  Double-pitched 
roofs  are  also  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer' in  winter 
than  the  shed-roof  type,  if  not  built  too  high  in  front 
and  at  too  great  a  pitch,  provided  there  is  an  outlet  for 
the  warm  air,  as  indicated  in  the  plans  for  this  building. 

This  house  is  not  too  large  to  be  constructed  upon 
runners  or  skids  so  that  it  can  be  moved  from  place 
to  place  and  used  as  a  colony  coop  for  the  growing 
stock,  if  deemed  advisable,  or  it  can  be  constructed  upon 
a  permanent  foundation. 

One  feature  worthy  of  special  mention  is  the  system 
of  ventilation.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  are  three 
sliding  muslin  frames  on  the  front  of  the  building. 
These  are  for  the  purpose  of  covering  the  open  windows 
in  stormy  weather  so  that  rains  and  snow  cannot  beat 
in  and  soil  the  litter,  or  for  cold  nights  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  give  the  hens  additional  protection.  Most  of 
these  muslin  frames  on  the  average  house  are  either 
hinged  on  the  outside  or  inside  of  the  openings.  If  on 
the  outside,  the  wind  soon  destroys  them,  while  if  on 
the  inside  they  soon  become  dust-filled  and  dirty  and  do 
not  do  f  uU  duty  in  ventilating  the  interior,  necessitating 
the  changing  of  the  cloth  continually.  By  placing  them 
on  frames  in  grooves  on  the  front  of  the  building  as 
shown  in  this  plan,  they  are  always  in  position  for  use 
and  can  be  adjusted  to  any  height  deemed  necessary, 
something  that  is  impossible  in  the  case  of  hinged 
frames,  which  are  usually  either  entirely  open  or  en- 
tirely closed.  Likewise,  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  at- 
tendant to  enter  the  house  in  order  to  adjust  the  frames. 
All  this  work  can  be  done  from  the  outside  in  a  few 
second's  time. 


66  The  Modern  Farm  Ren 

The  house  is  planned  to  face  the  south  and  there  are 
windows  on  both  the  east  and  the  west  sides  of  the  build- 
ing, another  advantage  for  summer  ventilation  that  is 
too  often  overlooked  on  the  average  farm  poultry  house, 
and  entirely  impossible  in  the  long,  continuous  style  of 
poultry  house.  The  two  windows  on  the  front  provide 
ample  light  on  dark  days  when  the  muslin  frames  have 
to  be  entirely  closed. 


Colony  Houses,  Brooding  Houses  and  Coops 

Colony  houses  and  coops  are  necessary  where  a  large 
number  of  young  chicks  are  to  be  matured.  These 
houses  are  not  necessarily  of  expensive  cost  in  construc- 
tion. They  should  be  built  upon  runners  or  skids  in 
order  to  make  them  portable,  unless  a  permanent  loca- 
tion is  chosen  for  them  in  ideal  surroundings,  as  in  an 


i e-f- 

.. . 

f 

.,-,^;,'.-.-^, 

V 

ii   .-.A-    Li 

^^^^^ 

^ClolV,  CurV.o^ 

- 

t: 

CT203D    OCCTirl  Look.ojXwi" 

Fig.    21 — Colony    Coop    for    100    Baby    Chicks. 


'•J-.i-Joi.t.^ 

TtjoHt  Xl-tVATloH 


orchard.  Colony  houses  make  it  possible  to  establish  a 
unit  in  flock  size  in  which  to  mature  young  stock,  and 
as  the  number  matured  increases  each  year  to  add  to  the 
number  of  coops.    Where  the  coops  are  properly  built 


Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks        67 

and  of  the  best  size,  they  can  be  used  during  the  rest  of 
the  year  for  surplus  laying  stock  or  cockerels. 

Colony  Brooder  Coop  for  100  Chicks 

The  accompanying  plans  show  a  simple  form  of  con- 
struction for  a  colony  coop  6x8  feet  in  size,  sufficient  for 
raising  100  chicks  with  an  oil  burning  brooder  on  range. 
The  coop  is  4  feet  high  in  the  rear,  6  feet  high  in  front, 
and  may,  or  may  not,  be  built  on  runners.     The  front 


•rl^ 


■*-s'o'-- 


Door 


Fig.    22 — Front   Elevation    Coal    Burning    Brooder    House   for    Large 
Flock  of  Chicks. 


is  equipped  with  a  door  permitting  access  to  the  interior, 
and  making  it  possible  to  protect  the  chicks  at  night 
against  natural  enemies.  It  also  has  an  open  front  win- 
dow, equipped  with  a  sliding  muslin-covered  wooden 
frame  to  keep  out  the  rain  or  to  prevent  chilling  of  the 
chicks  on  cold  days.     The  plans  are  self-explanatory. 


68 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


This  coop  is  economical  in  cost  of  construction  and  when 
properly  built  will  last  for  a  life-time. 

Coal  Burning  Brooder  House 

This  house  is  10x12  feet  in  size  and  designed  especial- 
ly for  larger  flocks  of  chicks  brooded  under  portable  coal 
burning  brooder  stoves.  It  is  4  feet  8  inches  high  at  the 
rear  and  6  feet  8  inches  high  in  front.  A  sliding  win- 
dow is  placed  on  the  east  side  of  the  coop  (the  coops  al- 
ways face  the  south)  and  additional  ventilation  is  af- 
forded by  windows  and  openings  on  the  south  or  front 


Fig.  23 — Cross-section  Coal  Burning  Brooder  House. 


and  an  opening  in  the  rear  wall  6  inches  wide  by  6  feet 
long.  A  similar  opening  is  provided  in  front  close  un- 
der the  roof.  These  devices  keep  the  coop  cool  in  the 
hottest  summer  weather,  something  absolutely  necessary 
to  prevent  over-heating,  crowding,  losses  and  stunted 
chicks.     One  common  fault  with  many  colony  coops  is 


Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks        69 

that  they  do  not  make  maximum  summer  ventilation  pos- 
sible, and  probably  the  greatest  losses  in  growing  stock 
is  due  to  this  one  cause.  The  openings  are  all  so  ar- 
ranged that  they  can  be  closed  when  desirable,  and  so 
that  the  house  can  be  properly  ventilated,  regardless  of 
the  direction  of  the  wind,  and  the  brooder  stove  there- 
by regulated  so  that  it  will  not  burn  out,  or  suck  out. 
The  plans  give  full  directions  for  construction  of  this 
type  house.  The  portable  coal  burning  brooder  stove  is 
placed  in  the  exact  center  of  the  floor  and  it  is  well  to 
make  the  floor  double  thickness  immediately  under  it. 


Semi-Monitor  Colony  Coops 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  the  semi-moni- 
tor colony  coop  used  by  Charles  Laros  in  his  orchard  on 
his  Iowa  poultry  farm.    It  follows  the  semi-monitor  form 
of    construction    is    10x12 
feet  in  size  and  is  built  on  a 
permanent  foundation,  al- 
though there  is  no  reason 
why  this  coop  could  not  be 
built  on  runners  and  moved 
from    place    to    place.      A 
coop  of  this  kind  is  more 
expensive  to  construct  than 
ordinary  shed-roof   colony 

coops,  but  it  is  probably  more  durable  and  can  be  used 
to  better  advantage  the  year  around  for  laying  stock  or 
surplus  breeders  or  cockerels. 


Fig.  24 — Semi-Monitor  Colony  Coop 
Used  by  Charles   Laros. 


70 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


Range  Boosting  Coop 

This  coop  has  been  used  with  good  success  by  a  Dallas 
county,  Iowa,  poultry  farmer  for  roosting  quarters  for 
young  stock  on  grass  range 
in  a  young  orchard.  It  has 
no  floor  and  is  intended 
only  for  chicks  after  they 
have  been  taken  from  the 
brooder  house  and  are  able 
to  take  care  of  themselves 
on  the  range.  It  is  merely 
a  roosting  shelter,  has  two 
flat  perches,  and  is  cleaned 

Fig.  25— Range  Roosting  Coop.  by    moviug    tO    a    nCW    loca- 

tion. It  can  be  built  any 
convenient  size,  4x6  feet  and  6x8  feet  being  the  most 
convenient  sizes. 


Small  Flock  Breeding  House 

D.  E.  Carlson,  an  Iowa  farmer,  uses  these  6x8  feet 
individual  pens  for  his  breeding  flocks,  which  are  iso- 


Fig.    26 — Small    Flock    Breeding    Houses    Used    by    D.    E.    Carlson 
on   His   Iowa   Farm. 


Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks        71 

lated,  as  they  should  be,  from  the  laying  flocks  and 
are  given  individual  yards  so  that  they  cannot  range 
with  the  other  stock.  There  is  nothing  special  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  these  coops.  Three  window  sashes  are 
placed  in  front,  hinged  at  the  top  to  open  outward. 
This  affords  sufficient  ventilation  and  protects  the  in- 
terior of  the  coops  from  beating  storms.  A  small  door 
is  placed  on  the  east  side  (opposite  in  picture)  to  permit 
access  for  gathering  the  eggs  and  cleaning  the  coop. 


Two-Pen  Small  Flock  Breeding  Coop 

The  illustration  shows  a  two-pen  breeding  flock  pen 
which  has  been  used  for  several  seasons  by  the  author. 
It  is  10x12  feet  in  size,  7  feet  high  in  front  and  5  feet 
high   at   the   rear. 
This  coop  will  com- 
fortably house  two 
breeding    pens    of 
15     females     each, 
and  a  laying  flock 
of   up   to   50  Leg- 
horns can  be  main- 
tained   in    it,    by 
slight  crowding ;  in 
fact,  one  winter  55 

fowls  were  kept  in  this  coop  with  good  results.  It  was 
built  of  old  lumber  and  shows  what  can  sometimes  be 
done  with  waste  material.  The  only  new  material  used 
was  the  framing  and  it  was  new  only  because  we  had  no 
second-hand  material  available. 

A  feature  of  this  coop  is  the  ventilation  afforded  by 
the  large  open  windows  protected  by  muslin  covered 
frames  opening  outward  and  held  in  place  by  ordinary 
storm  sash  holders.     The  ventilation  principle  is  fully 


Fig.  27 — Two- Pen  Small  Flock  Breeding  Coop. 


72- 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


illustrated  by  the  accompanying  drawing.  Particular 
attention  is  called  to  the  opening  at  the  rear  of  the 
house  which  is  so  arranged  that  air  may  constantly  play 
through  the  house  when  the  fowls  are  on  the  roost  with- 


FLOOR  PLAN 
Showing    Interior    Arrangement    of 
Fig.    27. 


Fig.  28 — Rear  Wall  Ventilating 
Device  of  Pig.  27. 


out  subjecting  them  to  drafts.  We  have  found  this  house 
exceptionally  cool  in  summer  and  extremely  satisfac- 
tory in  winter.  In  severe  weather,  the  opening  at  the 
rear  is  closed  by  hooking  up  the  hinged  cover. 


Nests,  Hoppers  and  Appliances 

Properly  constructed  nests  will  lighten  the  labor  load 
the  farmer  will  be  called  upon  to  carry  when  he  has  his 
flock  developed  to  its  maximum  size.  Nests  should  be 
so  constructed  that  the  bottom  can  be  slipped  out  easily, 
thus  making  cleaning  practically  automatic.  This  is 
one  of  those  details  which  cannot  well  be  overlooked,  for 


Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks         78 

it  is  of  more  importance  to  the  busy  man  than  one  might 
think  at  first  thought. 

A  number  of  plans  are  given  herewith  for  various 
types  of  nests  which  can  be  used  in  the  laying  house. 
For  general  use  on  the  farm,  we  advise  against  the  con- 
struction of  nests  under  the  dropping  boards,  especially 
where  the  labor  item  is  to  be  of  some  moment,  because 


'^ipp*  -^Z^S^HI 

„,._._.        :-r 

—  ^^^■■■■B 

^HH^HB^ifc.;' ^^^i^fllHI^H^I 

^^^^^^^^^^'jj^hn^Si 

Fig.    30 — One  Method   of   Nest   Construction   to   Save    Space  on   Inside   of 
Laying  House. 


these  nests  are  generally  hard  to  get  at  and  keep  clean, 
and  they  are  very  difficult  to  keep  free  from  mites,  once 
these  pests  get  into  the  house. 

A  sufficient  range  of  nest  types  are  given  to  fit  almost 
any  preference  or  condition.  Very  good  nests  can  also 
be  purchased  upon  the  open  market,  if  one  can  afford 
to  buy  them.  Galvanized  iron  nests  and  nesting  cabi- 
nets are  especially  recommended  because  of  the  ease 
with  which  they  can  be  kept  free  of  vermin.  Ordinary 
orange  boxes  make  excellent  nests,  each  box  making  two 


74 


The  Modern  Farm  Uen 


compartments  by  simply  taking  off  half  of  the  side,  or 
one  of  the  side  boards.    These  are  inexpensive  and  can 


/a" 


Fig.    32 — Simple 
WaU  Neat. 

Fig.  31 — Darkened  Nest  Compartment  for 
Wall   Use. 

be  placed  on  wall  shelves  around  the  laying  pens,  or 
in  tiers,  one  above  the  other. 

Trap  Nests 

Trap  nests  are  not  necessary  for  the  farm  laying 
flock  unless  one  desires  to  engage  in  specialty  breeding 
for  high  record  individuals.  If  pedigreeing  is  to  be 
practiced,  trap  nests  are  essential  and  when  one  goes 
into  the  poultry  business  as  a  life  calling,  the  sooner 
trap  nesting  is  commenced,  the  better.  It  is  the  sure 
route  to  a  high  egg-laying  strain,  and  it  tells  no  lies. 
There  is  no  guess-work  involved.  It  writes  the  record 
of  every  hen  from  day  to  day. 

Trap  nests  can  be  purchased  on  the  open  market,  or 
they  can  be  made  right  at  home  as  preferred.  Two  plans 
are  shown  herewith  for  home-made  trap  nests  which 
have  proved  successful.  One  was  developed  by  Cornell 
University  and  the  other  is  recommended  by  the  Missouri 
Experiment  Station.  The  plans  show  the  dimensions 
and  give  full  working  details. 


Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks        75 


Fig.  33 — For  Nests  Under  Dropping 
Board    (Side    View). 


Fig.   34 — Another  View  of  Nests  to 
Go   Under   Dropping  Board. 


^  ■    <S<?cr/o/z 


^rnrf  fir  l/vii 


fh,d  of  mre 
pivcJF 


Fig.  35 — Cornell  Trap-Nest. 


!  QlocH  fastened  To 

'      Mb 


tCo/ch 


76 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


Fig.  36 — ^Missouri  Trap  Nest. 


Buildings  and  Equipment  for  the  Flocks         77 

Hoppers  and  Feed  Boxes 

Hopper  feeding  of  dry  mashes  is  not  only  a  great 
labor  saver,  if  the  hoppers  are  large  enough  to  hold  sev- 
eral day 's  supply,  but  is  absolutely  necessary  if  the  max- 
imum results  are  to  be  expected  from  the  flock,  regard- 
less of  age.  For  laying  hens  and  growing  stock,  it  sup- 
plies the  necessary  balanced  ration  in  the  unlimited 
quantities  necessary  for  heavy  egg  yield  or  consistent 
growth  and  development. 

Hoppers  may  be  purchased  on  the  market  at  a  reason- 
able price,  the  majority  of  which  are  constructed  of  gal- 
vanized iron  and  will  last  an  ordinary  life-time,  if  given 
proper  care.  These  hoppers  come  in  many  sizes  and  in 
many  designs.    Some  are  very  good  and  some  are  very 


Fig.  37 — Lord  Farms  Large  Flock  Hopper. 


poor.  The  poultryman  or  farmer  should  make  a  care- 
ful examination  of  hoppers  and  select  only  those  which 
will  handle  the  mash  efficiently,  preventing  the  stock 
from  wasting  the  feed.  The  tendency  in  purchasing 
hoppers  for  large  flocks  is  to  buy  them  too  small  in  size 
to  secure  the  maximum  efficiency,  so  far  as  the  labor 
of  filling  is  concerned.    Small  hoppers  have  to  be  filled 


78  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

frequently,  and  this  multiplies  the  labor  necessary  to 
handle  the  flock. 

Any  handy  man  or  boy  can  make  excellent  hoppers 
for  the  flock  right  at  home  with  no  more  complicated 
tools  than  a  hammer  and  saw. 

Special  attention  is  called  to  the  large  flock  hopper 
designed  by  Lord  Farms.  This  hopper  will  hold  suffi- 
cient drj'^  mash  for  100  birds  for  one  week.  It  stands 
up  out  of  the  litter  where  straw  cannot  be  scratched  into 
the  feeding  opening,  provides  a  pan  for  water,  and  has 
a  revolving  top  to  prevent  fowls  roosting  there  and 
soiling  the  mash  below.  One  of  these  hoppers  in  the 
middle  of  each  laying  pen  will  solve  the  dry  mash  feed- 
ing problem  and  be  the  most  efficient  that  can  be  secured. 
They  can  be  made  right  on  the  farm  on  rainy  days  of 
material  at  hand.  The  plans  give  full  details  for  their 
construction, 


CHAPTER  V. 

The  Laws  and  Principles  of  Breeding 


The    Fundamental    Laws    of    Breeding — Line    Breeding — In- 
breeding— Cross-Breeding— Gradinc — Selecting 
THE  Breeding  Stock 

When  the  farmer  takes  up  the  business  of  breeding 
poultry  or  live  stock  he  is  entering  a  most  fascinating 
work.  Here  he  comes  in  close  contact,  if  he  studies  the 
forces  with  which  he  often  unconsciously  works,  with 
the  laws  of  nature,  of  the  development  of  races  of  living 
things.  Breeding  is  a  sci- 
ence and  it  calls  for  the 
most  painstaking  study  and 
work  at  the  hands  of  the 
breeder.  Men  and  women 
have  devoted  life-times  to 
this  work  and  have  laid 
down  the  work  at  the  end 
of  their  lives  conscious  of 
the  many  things  yet  to  be 
learned  and  applied.  Yet 
tremendous  progress  has 
been  made  in  breeding  in  a 
single  generation,  especial- 
ly in  the  poultry  world. 

There  is  one  great  reward  in  the  business  of  the  breed- 
er and  that  is  that  it  will  never  become  standardized  to 
the  extent  that  feeding  is,  or  housing.  It  can  never  be 
reduced  to  a  definite  formula.  It  must  always  be  de- 
pendent upon  the  individual  skill  of  the  breeder  him- 
self.    This  means  that  the  large  rewards  are  going  to 


Fig  38. — These  Fine  White  Rocks 
Are  the  Result  of  Proper  Breed- 
ing. 


80  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

flow  to  the  man  or  woman  who  masters  the  science  and 
learns  how  to  bend  it  to  a  definite  purpose  or  accom- 
plishment. There  are  hundreds  of  so-called  "breeders" 
in  the  poultry  world  today,  but  one  could  probably  name 
the  real  breeders  on  the  fingers  of  one  hand.  The  same 
is  true  in  the  respective  live  stock  worlds.  This  does 
not  mean  that  only  the  especially  fortunate  can  succeed 
at  this  work;  it  merely  means  that  the  man  or  woman 
who  takes  the  pains  to  really  try  to  understand  the  laws 
of  breeding  and  to  apply  them  are  the  ones  who  will 
reap  the  greatest  reward.  For  the  vast  majority  are 
content  to  "let  Nature  take  its  course"  and  to  ride  the 
crest  of  the  waves  with  others  who  have  achieved  the  dis- 
tinction by  buying  into  their  strains.  That  is  why  suc- 
cess brings  monetary  reward  to  the  trail  blazer. 

Heredity 

Heredity  is  the  very  first  law  of  breeding  with  which 
we  must  concern  ourselves.  It  is  the  transmission  of 
characters  in  the  reproduction  of  living  things.  The 
force  of  the  law  of  heredity  is  everywhere  apparent 
about  us.  Two  eggs  may  be  absolutely  identical  in  ap- 
pearance, size,  shape,  color,  weight.  They  may  hatch 
chicks  that  are  identical  in  size,  shape,  color,  weight  and 
appearance,  but  almost  instantly  the  power  of  heredity 
asserts  itself  and  we  find  one  chick  developing  into  a 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock  and  the  other  into  a  Silver  Laced 
"Wyandotte.  Or,  we  may  have  two  large  white  eggs 
which  develop,  respectively,  into  a  White  Leghorn  fowl 
and  a  Black  Minorca. 

One  of  the  first  noticeable  signs  of  the  law  of  heredity 
in  the  actions  of  baby  chicks  is  the  tendency  to  scratch 
for  their  feed.  Oftentimes  baby  chicks  at  the  very  first 
feeding  on  a  clean  board  or  a  paper  will  try  to  scratch 
for  their  feed  when  there  is  no  actual  need  for  it.    That 


The  Laws  and  Prmciples  of  Breeding  81 

is  an  evidence  of  the  effect  of  heredity  upon  them.  The 
fact  that  pullets  commence  to  lay  at  a  certain  time  is 
another  evidence  of  this  law. 

All  organisms  receive  directly  either  from  single  or 
double  parent  forms  an  inheritance  of  (1)  racial  and 
(2)  individual  characters.  Racial  characters  take  on  the 
form  of  the  breed  and  the  variety  to  which  the  chick 
traces  its  ancestry,  subject  to  certain  exceptions  noted 
later  in  this  discussion.  A  racial  character  may  be  color 
markings,  the  size  and  shape  of  the  comb  or  ear  lobes, 
feathered  or  clean  legs,  or  four  or  five  toes,  as  the  case 
may  be.  Individual  characters,  however,  are  not  sub- 
ject to  such  a  clear  classification  because  they  are  as 
numerous  as  the  sands  of  the  seashore. 

While  the  law  of  heredity  is  apparently  absolute  and 
inflexible  and  one  hears  people  talking  glibly  about  "like 
begetting  like ' '  it  is,  nevertheless  true  that  Nature  never 
produces  two  individuals  exactly  alike.  Pullets  com- 
ing from  the  same  parentage  will  vary  greatly  in  egg 
production ;  cockerels  coming  from  similar  matings  will 
develop  into  extraordinary  and  worthless  breeding  in- 
dividuals; fowls  from  the  same  mating  will  develop 
combs  varying  in  the  number  of  points,  in  the  color  of 
the  eyes,  in  color  markings,  in  tail  carriage  and  in  in- 
numerable other  respects.  This  gives  rise  to  another 
great  law  of  breeding,  practically  as  powerful  as  the 
first,  which  is  the  law  of  variation. 

Variation 

Variation  appears  in  response  to  the  law  that  no  two 
things  are  reproduced  exactly  alike.  The  casual  or 
indifferent  breeder  moves  along  the  line  of  heredity  se- 
cure in  his  belief  that  "like  begets  like"  and  content  to 
examine  no  further.    As  a  result,  he  makes  slight  prog- 


82 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


ress.  On  the  other  hand,  the  careful  and  scientific  breed- 
er sees  in  the  law  of  variation  his  great  opportunity  for 
improvement  of  his  stock  along  the  desired  line.  He  is 
a  keen  judge  of  individuals  and  he  is  constantly  weigh- 
ing the  individual  characters  of  his  birds  or  stock  in  an 
effort  to  improve  characteristics  in  his  individuals  or 
breed  by  utilizing  the  law  of  variation. 

At  least  one  popular  breed  of  fowls  is  the  result  of 
this  law,  worked  out  almost  entirely  by  Nature.     Now 

and  then  an  appar- 
e  n  1 1  y  "  regular ' ' 
mating  will  pro- 
duce an  individual 
or  individuals  hav- 
ing marked  char- 
acteristics differing 
from  those  of  the 
immediate  ances- 
try. These  individ- 
uals are  called 
"sports."  White 
Plymouth  Rocks, 
for  instance,  orig- 
inated as  "sports" 
from  a  mating  of 
Barred  Plymouth 
Rocks ;  the  Concord  grape  is  a  sport  of  the  native  wild 
grape,  and  Moore's  Early  a  sport  of  the  Concord. 

There  is  a  marked  tendency  on  the  part  of  "sports" 
to  breed  true  to  form,  hence  the  probable  source  of  new 
breeds  and  types,  and  evidence  of  the  desire  of  Nature 
to  fortify  these  individuals  against  losing  all  that  had 
been  gained  through  disappearance  of  the  new  type. 
They  are  most  noticeable  where  the  variation  is  in  color 
markings  or  some  outward  departure  from  general  or 


Pig.   39 — Line-breedin?   Tends   to   Secure   Uni- 
formity in    Individual   Characters. 


The  Laws  and  Principles  of  Breeding  83 

racial  characters  which  call  attention  to  them,  but  there 
is  no  reason  to  assume  that  "sports"  do  not  occur,  in  a 
sense,  in  other  characters  not  so  noticeable,  such  as  egg- 
laying  ability. 

The  careful  breeder  is  always  on  the  alert,  at  any  rate, 
to  take  into  consideration  any  variation  that  appears 
and  to  work  accordingly.  But  variation  is  not  always 
in  the  direction  of  progress ;  it  may  be  either  up  or  down. 
This  gives  rise  to  another  law  of  breeding,  atavism  or 
reversion. 


Reversion 

Reversion  is  the  tendency  to  revert  back  to  the  type 
or  characters  of  some  remote  or  immediate  ancestor.  As 
a  rule  the  term  is  applied  to  signify  an  undesirable  an- 
cestor, although  the  law  often  works  to  an  advantage, 
as  in  the  case  of  line-breeding  where  the  offspring  are 
more  likely  to  revert  back  to  the  type  and  characters  of 
a  desirable  and  outstanding  ancestor.  But  this  only 
serves  to  emphasize  the  great  care  with  which  the  breed- 
er must  move. 

Reversion  is  one  of  the  greatest  stumbling  blocks  in 
the  path  of  the  breeder,  particularly  the  line-breeder 
who  is  attempting  to  make  progress  in  the  type  and  char- 
acteristics of  his  strain.  He  cannot  make  this  progress 
unless  he  ruthlessly  eliminates  every  individual  that  is 
not  up  to  the  high  standard  set  in  his  matings  and  he 
must  constantly  improve  that  standard  by -selecting  the 
best  individuals  possible  with  each  mating,  or  the  ten- 
dency to  revert  back  to  the  undesirable  ancestor  crops 
out  to  bring  his  work  to  naught. 


84  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

Pbepotenct 

One  hears  a  great  deal  about  prepotency,  especially  in 
regard  to  sires  used  in  breeding  for  heavy  egg  produc- 
tion ;  in  fact,  the  word  has  come  to  be  applied  in  utility 
breeding  almost  exclusively  to  that  thought.  Prepotent 
fowls  are  those  especially  strong  in  some  desirable  char- 
acteristic ;  that  is,  the  characteristic  is  so  firmly  stamped 
in  their  blood  that  it  is  bound  to  be  transmitted  by  them 
to  their  progeny. 

Where  careful  and  patient  selection  of  breeding  birds 
is  practiced  through  several  generations,  having  in  mind 
constantly  some  desirable  characteristic  or  ideal  to  which 
the  breeder  wishes  to  bring  his  flock,  the  fusion  of  these 
qualities  is  going,  at  some  time,  to  cause  progress  in  the 
direction  desired  to  take  place.  By  a  constant  selection 
and  mating  of  birds  in  this  direction,  the  time  will  come 
when  the  quality  will  be  so  firmly  established  in  the 
blood  lines  that  it  becomes  a  distinguishing  feature  of 
the  strain.  This  will  result  in  the  production  of  birds 
which  not  only  possess  the  characteristic  but  also  have 
the  power  to  transmit  it  in  increased  measure  to  their 
progeny  or  offspring.  These  birds  are  prepotent,  and 
are  to  be  highly  valued  for  breeding  purposes. 

Breeders  often  work  for  several  years  before  they  se- 
cure prepotent  individuals  of  the  type  or  characteristic 
desired  in  order  to  use  them  as  the  foundation  for  their 
real  breeding  operations.  Iii  the  case  of  egg  production, 
a  prepotent  male  generally  comes  from  a  long  line  of 
good  laying  -dams  and  he  may  have  heavy-laying  grand- 
dams  on  the  sire  side  in  addition.  It  is  fairly  well  es- 
tablished now  that  the  transmission  of  the  egg-laying 
ability  runs  from  dam  to  son  and  from  son  to  daughter, 
although  there  is  some  evidence  to  give  credence  to  the 
view  that  it  may  go  down  from  dam  to  daughter  and 
daughter  to  daughter,  as  well.    A  prepotent  sire  having 


The  Laws  and  Principles  of  Breeding  85 

such  a  record  behind  him  is  of  almost  priceless  value 
to  the  breeder,  and  the  constant  search  of  every  breeder 
is  for  indications  of  prepotency. 

The  trap-nest  and  pedigree  breeding  is  the  only  way 
in  which  they  can  be  discovered,  once  produced.  Like- 
wise, it  is  necessary  to  retain  the  breeding  birds  until 
the  performance  of  their  progeny  has  been  checked  up 
to  know,  oftentimes,  that  we  have  such  a  bird  among 
the  breeders.  After  a  time,  however,  the  intensification 
of  the  blood  lines  along  the  desired  characteristic  will 
reach  such  a  point  that  it  can  be  said,  for  practical  pur- 
poses, that  the  birds  are  all  prepotent. 

Line-Breeding 

We  now  come  to  a  consideration  of  a  system  of  breed- 
ing which  seems  to  be  very  slightly  understood  by  the 
rank  and  file  of  the  breeders  the  country  over.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  questions  that  are  asked  by  those  engaged 
in  poultry  breeding  work  is:  "Just  what  is  line-breed- 
ing?    How  can  it  be  distinguished  from  inbreeding?" 

Stated  in  the  plainest  possible  language  line-breeding 
is  scientific  or  systematic  inbreeding.  This  calls  for  an 
explanation  of  inbreeding,  which  we  have  reserved  for 
consideration  in  a  succeeding  paragraph. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  that  every  individual 
bird  possesses  a  number  of  characteristics  distinguish- 
ing it  from  every  other  bird.  Let  us  suppose  that  a 
breeder  possesses  an  exceptional  bird  in  which  the  char- 
acteristics are  extremely  desirable.  Such  a  bird  is  met 
with  so  rarely  that  the  chance  of  producing  another  like 
it  is  extremely  remote.  The  breeder  naturally  desires 
to  preserve  the  desirable  characteristics  of  this  bird. 
How  can  he  do  it? 


86  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

If  he  merely  crosses  it  with  another  bird,  he  cannot 
hope  to  save  the  characteristic  because  every  time  the 
progeny  is  crossed  with  another  bird  of  the  same  gener- 
ation, a  number  of  other  variations  will  be  introduced 
into  the  blood  which  overcome  the  desirable  ones.  The 
result  is,  through  mating  with  unrelated  stock  the  blood 
of  the  desirable  specimen  is  gradually  bred  out  and  lost. 
Obviously,  the  breeder  cannot  adopt  that  plan,  if  he  is 
to  make  progress. 

The  result  is  that  he  must  resort  to  line-breeding  in 
order,  not  only  to  hold  the  desirable  characteristic  but 
to  strengthen  and  preserve  it  in  the  progeny.  What 
does  he  do  ?  He  looks  around  for  the  most  desirable  bird 
of  the  opposite  sex  that  he  can  find  in  his  yards,  because 
he  wants  to  stay  within  the  family  or  general  blood  run- 
ning through  his  fowls;  the  chances  of  unknown  varia- 
tions cropping  out  in  the  progeny  are  lessened  thereby. 
He  selects  a  bird  that  will  tend,  by  its  own  character- 
istics to  strengthen  those  wherein  the  first  bird  is  weak. 
He  mates  them  together  and  the  result  of  such  a  mating 
will  be  to  produce  progeny  as  good  or  a  little  better  than 
the  parents. 

Both  males  and  females  are  secured  as  a  result  of  this 
first  mating.  If  the  breeder  is  to  make  progress,  he 
must  intensify  the  blood  of  the  original  desirable  speci- 
men, for  in  the  first  generation  of  progeny  he  has  only 
50  per  cent  of  it,  the  other  50  per  cent  coming  from  the 
other  bird  in  the  original  mating.  Let  us  suppose  that 
the  original  male  is  the  desirable  specimen.  The  breed- 
er then  selects  the  best  daughter  of  this  male  and  mates 
her  back  to  her  father.  This  gives  him  a  generation 
containing  75  per  cent  of  the  blood  of  the  original  sire 
and  only  25  per  cent  of  the  original  dam.  He  then  se- 
lects the  best  grand-daughter,  the  result  of  this  mat- 
ing, and  mates  her  back  to  her  grandfather,  the  origin- 


The  Laws  and  Principles  of  Breeding  87 

al  male.  This  gives  him  a  generation  containing  seven- 
eighths  of  the  blood  of  the  original  sire  and  only  one- 
eighth  the  blood  of  the  original  dam.  If  the  original 
sire  is  still  suitable  for  breeding,  he  is  mated  to  the  best 
female  resulting,  and  the  progeny  of  this  mating  will 
contain  thirteen-sixteenths  the  blood  of  the  original  sire. 
It  will  be  noted  that  something  is  gained  every  mating 
in  the  direction  of  intensifying  the  desirable  blood.  But 
we  still  cannot  hold  it  without  resorting  to  close  inbreed- 
ing. So  we  develop  a  female  line  out  of  the  original 
dam  by  the  very  same  process,  in  order  that  we  may  cre- 
ate a  female  line  carrying  practically  the  full  blood  of 
the  original  dam.  The  result  is  that  two  lines  are  es- 
tablished in  which  the  blood  of  the  original  sire  predomi- 
nates in  one,  and  the  blood  of  the  original  dam  in  the 
other. 

By  going  a  step  farther  and  taking  two  birds  of  the 
same  generation  to  breed  together,  one  from  the  sire 
line  and  another  from  the  dam  line,  a  third  line  can 
be  established  carrying  equal  parts  of  the  blood  of  the 
original  birds,  and  this  is  accomplished  without  breed- 
ing brothers  and  sisters  together. 

This  is  best  illustrated  by  referring  to  the  accompany- 
ing chart  taken  from  the  line-breeding  system  of  I.  K. 
Felch,  long  a  prominent  Light  Brahma  breeder  and  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  American  Poultry  Association. 
The  explanation  of  this  chart  as  given  by  the  late  Mr. 
Felch  follows: 

"Each  dotted  line  represents  the  female  as  having 
been  selected  from  the  connected  upper  group,  while 
the  solid  line  shows  the  male  as  having  been  taken  from 
the  indicated  upper  group.  Each  circle  represents  the 
progeny.  To-wit :  female  No.  1  mated  with  male  No.  2 
produces  group  No.  3,  which  is  one-half  the  blood  of 
sire  and  dam. 


88 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


"Females  from  group  No.  3,  mated  back  to  their  own 
sire  No.  2,  produce  group  No.  5,  which  is  %  the  blood 
of  the  sire,  No.  2,  and  i/4  the  blood  of  the  dam,  No.  1. 

'*A  male  from  group  No.  3,  mated  back  to  his  own 
dam.  No.  1,  produces  group  No.  4,  which  is  %  the  blood 
of  the  dam,  No.  1,  and  i^  the  blood  of  the  sire.  No.  2. 

"We  select  a  cockerel  from  group  No.  5  and  a  pullet 
from  group  No.  4,  or  vice  versa,  which  will  produce 
group  No.  7.    This  is  mathematically  half  the  blood  of 

LINE  BREEDING  CHART         ""    ""^l"'''?''-'''    ^"^    I 

^  p^  S-     O       ^  ^^  ^  second 

\J.UQm  OireAJ       step  towards  producing  a 

new  line. 

"Females  from  No,  5 
mated  back  to  the  original 
male.  No.  2,  .produce  group 
No.  8,  that  are  %  the  blood 
of  No.  2.  A  cockerel  from 
No.  4,  mated  back  to  the 
original  dam.  No.  1,  pro- 
duces group  No.  6  that  is 
%  the  blood  of  the  original 
dam  and  only  %  the  blood 
of  the  original  sire. 

"Again  we  select  a  male 
from  No.  8  and  females 
from  No.  6  and  for  a  third 
time  produce  chicks  (in 
group  No.  11)  that  are  half  the  blood  of  the  original  pair. 
This  is  the  third  step  and  the  seventh  mating  in  securing 
complete  breeding  of  our  new  strain.  In  all  this  we  have 
not  broken  the  line  of  sires,  for  every  one  has  come  from 
a  group  in  which  the  preponderance  of  blood  was  that 
of  the  original  sire.  Nos.  2,  8,  13  and  18  are  virtually 
the  blood  of  No.  2. 


Fig.  40— This  Chart  Makes  It  Easy 
to    Follow   Line    Breeding. 


The  Laws  and  Principles  of  Breeding  89 

"We  have  reached  a  point  where  we  may  wish  to  es- 
tablish a  male  line  whose  blood  is  virtually  that  of  our 
original  dam,  and  we  now  select  from  No.  6  a  male  which 
we  mate  with  a  female  from  No.  4,  and  produce  group 
No.  9,  which  is  13-16  the  blood  of  the  original  dam, 
No.  1,  and  3-16  the  blood  of  the  original  sire. 

"Again  we  select  a  male  from  No.  9  and  a  female  of 
the  new  strain  No.  11,  and  produce  group  No.  14  which 
becomes  21-32  of  the  blood  of  the  original  dam,  thus 
preserving  her  strain  of  blood. 

"A  male  from  No.  13,  which  is  13-16  the  blood  of  the 
original  sire,  No.  2,  mated  from  females  of  No.  10,  which 
are  5-16  the  blood  of  the  original  sire.  No.  2,  gives  us 
group  No.  17,  which  is  9-16  the  blood  of  said  sire,  while 
in  No.  16  we  have  the  new  strain,  and  in  No.  18  the  strain 
of  our  original  sire.  No.  2.  Thus,  we  have  three  distinct 
strains,  and  by  and  with  this  systematic  use  we  can  go 
on  breeding  for  all  time  to  come." 

Inbreeding 

The  breeding  of  fowls  of  close  blood  relationship  is 
inbreeding.  Although  many  people  have  the  idea  that 
line-breeding  is  apart  from  inbreeding  and  gets  away 
from  it  entirely,  the  fact  remains  that  line-breeding  is 
inbreeding,  but  inbreeding  to  a  purpose  and  of  fowls 
more  remotely  related  so  that  the  evils  from  close  in- 
breeding are  not  so  likely  to  be  apparent.  But  the 
breeder  must  ever  keep  in  mind  that  it  is  inbreeding  that 
he  is  practicing  and  that  faults  will  be  intensified  as  well 
as  desirable  qualities.  This  calls  for  the  most  persistent 
and  painstaking  selection  possible  of  the  birds  used  in 
the  matings  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  the  fault-va- 
riations over-turning  or  over-shadowing  the  desirable 
characteristics. 


90 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


Close  inbreeding  such  as  brother  to  sister  and  indiffer- 
ent inbreeding  where  no  selection  of  individuals  is  made 
must  be  avoided.  There  is,  however,  no  justification  for 
the  notion  that  all  inbreeding  is  to  be  shunned  and  passed 
by,  and  there  is  ample  proof  that  line-breeding  is  the 
only  system  of  breeding  yet  devised  which  will  enable 
the  breeder  to  make  any 
headway  in  his  work.  There 
is  no  denial  of  this  fact; 
the  evidence  is  too  over- 
whelming. 

Persistent  mating  of 
close  blood  relations,  such 
as  brother  and  sister  for 
several  generations,  will 
unquestionably  result  in 
serious  trouble.  There  will 
be  a  loss  of  size,  of  consti- 
tutional vigor  and  fecun- 
dity. On  the  other  hand 
line-breeding,  or  systematic 
inbreeding,  can  be  made  to 
work  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  vigor  of  the  stock 
actually  increasing  with  each  generation,  the  fecundity 
instead  of  being  impaired,  being  bred  up  to  a  high  point, 
and  constitutions  strengthened. 


Fig.    41 — A    Desirable   Type   of   Sire 
to    Head   the   Breeding   Pen. 


Cross-Breeding 

Nothing  of  permanence,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be 
gained  by  cross-breeding  or  outbreeding.  Where  birds 
of  different  varieties  are  mated  together  or  birds  of  dif- 
ferent strains  within  a  variety  are  mated,  the  tendency 
is  to  destroy  or  break  down  the  blood  lines  and  cause 
the  progeny  to  show  variations  from  the  types  of  the 
parent  birds.    First  crosses  often  apparently  show  prog- 


The  Laws  and  Principles  of  Breeding  91 

ress  and  indicate  that  something  has  been  gained,  but 
one  cannot  go  back  of  first  crosses  with  any  degree  of 
certainty. 

There  is  no  justification  today,  in  the  light  of  what  we 
know  about  breeding,  for  anyone  keeping  up  the  prac- 
tice of  cross-breeding.  In  the  matter  of  increased  size 
for  market  poultry,  it  may  be  satisfactory  where  first 
crosses  are  produced  to  sell  for  market  fowls,  but  there 
is  no  defense  to  the  plea  that  it  improves  fecundity  and 
makes  a  better  race  of  layers.  Breeders  have  long  since 
found  that  this  claim  is  groundless  and  that  the  ten- 
dency is,  in  fact,  to  impair  and  break  down  fecundity, 
if  any  effect  is  registered.  First  crosses  often  do,  how- 
ever, possess  good  fecundity  but  that  is  about  as  far 
as  one  can  safely  go.  The  tendency  seems  to  ebb  with 
each  cross.    • 

The  only  absolutely  certain  plan  of  breeding,  one  that 
will  offer  the  maximum  possibility  of  progress  whatever 
the  characteristic  desired,  is  to  keep  pure-bred  stock, 
stick  to  a  single  strain  and  practice  line-breeding. 

Grading  Up  the  Flock 

Grading  is  commonly  practiced  by  live  stock  feeders 
and  breeders  for  the  purpose  of  improving  common  stock 
through  the  introduction  of  pure-bred  sires.  It  has  not 
been  as  commonly  practiced  by  farmers  on  poultry  flocks 
as  it  should  be.  It  offers  an  economical  way  in  which 
to  improve  common  or  mongrel  stock  and  bring  the  flock 
to  a  pure-bred  basis,  for  all  practical  purposes,  within 
a  few  years. 

The  plan  is  to  select  pure-bred  males  or  a  single  male 
and  breed  to  the  common  or  mongrel  flock  of  females. 
All  mongrel  or  cross-bred  males  are  rigorously  removed 
from  the  flock  each  season  and  the  original  males  used 
as  long  as  they  have  any  breeding  value.    If  it  is  neces- 


92 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


sary  to  secure  new  pure-bred  males  for  the  later  crosses, 
they  should  come  from  the  same  source  as  the  original 
pure-bred  males  and,  if  possible,  be  related  to  them. 

The  accompanying  diagram  illustrates  the  rapid  prog- 
ress that  takes  place  in  grading.     It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  cross  of  pure-bred  males  on  the  mongrels  re- 
sults   in    progeny    having 
one-half  the  blood  of  the 
pure-bred    sires    and    one- 
half  the  blood  of  the  mon- 
grel females.    The  females 
of    this    generation    are 
mated   back   to   the   pure- 
bred sires  and  this  results 
in   progeny   having   three- 
fourths   the   blood   of    the 
pure-bred  sires.    This  pro- 
geny    (female)    is    mated 
back  again  and  the  result- 
ing progeny  carries  seven- 
eighths  pure  blood.   Mated 
back  in  this  fashion  for  six 
generations    the    resulting 
progeny   will   carry   63-64 
pure  blood.    At  the  end  of 
the  third  and  fourth  mat- 
ings  the  flock  will  assume, 
to  all  outward  appearances,  pure-blood  characteristics  in 
keeping  with  the  breed  of  the  original  sires,  except  in 
isolated  cases  where  the  pure-bred  sires  come  from  a 
mongrel  breed  (in  color)  such  as  the  Blue  Andalusians. 
Grading  has  been  generally  neglected  by  the  average 
farmer  when  it  might  have  been  of  immense  value  to  him 
in  getting  rid  of  a  mongrel  or  indifferent  flock  without 
a  violent  interruption  of  the  poultry  work  or  a  consid- 
erable outlay  of  cash.    It  can  be  used  in  crossing  breeds, 


PURe  BRED        MONGRELS 
SIRE 

fS' 

1st 
2nd 

3rd 

%*]^ 

4th 

\lM'i 

3th 

w^ 

6th 

Fig.  42 — Chart  Showing  Increase  of 
Pure-blood  Through  Grading. 


The  Laivs  and  Priyiciples  of  Breeding  93 

as  well  as  in  using  standard-bred  males  of  the  same  va- 
riety as  the  common  flock  of  females.  And  it  will  dem- 
onstrate to  anyene  a  most  practical  lesson  of  the  power 
and  weight  of  the  laws  of  breeding,  systematically  and 
persistently  carried  out. 

Selecting  the  Breeding  Stock 

The  most  important  work  by  far  confronting  the 
farmer  will  be  his  selection  of  breeding  stock.  In  our 
examination  of  the  most  fundamental  of  the  laws  of 
breeding  we  have  already  found  that  the  individual 
characteristics  of  the  breeding  stock  play  a  tremendous 
part  in  the  practical  work  of  breeding.  One  must  first 
understand  the  fundamentals  of  breeding,  then  select 
the  individuals  best  suited  to  achieve  the  purpose  we 
have  in  mind,  through  the  application  of  said  principles. 

Breeding  is  too  often  haphazardly  gone  about  on  the 
farm,  and  this  accounts  for  the  disappointment  com- 
monly met  with.  We  cannot  over-emphasize  the  value 
and  importance  of  careful  selection.  Upon  it  depends  the 
success  of  any  intelligent  system  of  breeding.  The 
farmer  or  breeder  should  know  his  stock;  he  should 
know  it  intimately  and  be  fully  acquainted  with  every 
detailed  characteristic  in  order  to  properly  judge  the 
value  of  the  individual  for  breeding  purposes ;  then  he 
must  weigh  the  characteristics  of  the  males  against  the 
females  and  determine  in  his  mind,  through  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  fundamentals  of  breeding,  the  probable  ef- 
fect of  such-and-such  a  mating.  This  calls  for  pains- 
taking work,  as  we  have  already  indicated,  but  it  is  im- 
portant work  and  the  reward  is  worthy  the  effort.  Mis- 
takes of  judgment  will  be  made,  in  the  nature  of  things, 
but  the  careful  breeder  will  profit  by  his  mistakes  and 
capitalize  them.    He  will,  in  the  end,  make  progress. 


94 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


The  farmer  is  chiefly  concerned  in  the  selection  of 
breeding  stock  for  high  fecundity,  or  egg  production. 
He  will  need  to  become  acquainted  with  the  character- 
istics of  the  good  layer,  which  are  set  out  in  detail  in 
the  chapter  on  Culling  Farm  Poultry  for  Any  Purpose. 
But  he  should  not  go  to  extremes  in  this  direction,  as  so 
many  breeders  are.  One  cannot  long  disregard  stand- 
ard qualities  at  the  expense  of  high-laying  ability,  for 
there  is  slight  justification  in  the  idea  that  one  must  be 

sacrificed  to  gain  the 
other.  Recent  breed- 
ing work  at  the  Gov- 
ernment Poultry 
Farm  in  Maryland 
has  demonstrated  that 
it  is  possible  by  prop- 
er selection  and  line- 
breeding  to  produce  a 
strain  of  high-record 
layers  having  also 
outstanding  standard 
qualities. 

The  tide  has  started 
to  run  in  that  direc- 
tion and  it  strongly 
indicates  that  the 
breeders  who  reap  the 
large  rewards  in  the 
to  the  standard  type 
that    the    farmer 


Pig.  43 — Which  would  you  select  to  head 
the  breeding  pen?  Cock  on  left  is  the  best 
bird,  as  he  has  better  type  to  sire  high- 
producing   pullets. 


future  will  be  those  who  stick 
as  much  as  possible.  This  means 
is  going  to  have  to  study  the  standard  qualifications 
of  his  breed  as  set  out  in  the  Standard  of  Perfection 
and  to  breed  as  closely  to  it  as  possible  in  his  search 
for  high  fecundity.  One  can,  of  course,  disregard  it  en- 
tirely, as  the  breeders  of  Tom  Barron  and  English  Leg- 


The  Laws  and  Principles  of  Breeding  95 

horns  have  done  and  continue  to  secure  high  yields,  but 
the  trimmer  and  more  efficient  standard-bred  fowl  is 
bound  to  supplant  them  when  it  is  more  generally  known 
that  they  can  be  bred  to  as  high  a  state  of  fecundity. 
And  the  demand  for  stock,  eggs  and  chicks,  an  important 
source  of  income  even  to  market  e^g  breeders,  will  be 
worth  catering  to. 

There  is  an  egg  type  in  fowls  and  a  beef  type  just  as 
there  is  a  dairy  and  beef  type  in  cattle.  The  farmer 
must  learn  to  distinguish  these  types.  One  of  the  out- 
standing characteristics  of  the  heavy  layer,  not  a  sure 
index  in  every  case  but  an  important  one  nevertheless, 
is  that  they  are  usually  under  standard  weight.  Some 
of  the  best  laying  Leghorn  pullets,  for  instance,  weigh 
as  low  as  three  and  one-half  pounds.  Careful  weight 
records  of  high  layers  of  all  breeds  and  varieties  at  re- 
cent contests  indicate  that  the  tendency  to  be  under 
weight  is  extremely  pronounced  in  these  birds,  the  aver- 
age running  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  under 
standard  weight.  This  does  not  mean  that  something  is 
inherently  wrong  with  the  high-record  layers;  it  may 
indicate,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  standard  weight  is 
too  high  for  good  layers. 

The  egg  type  is  clearly  set  out  in  detail  in  the  chap- 
ter on  culling,  but  it  is  worth  while  to  note  herewith 
that  the  general  characteristics  of  the  egg  type  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Close  feathering,  thin  pelvic  bones,  long  backs,  a 
tendency  to  high  tails,  great  abdominal  capacity,  well- 
spread  legs,  active,  energetic,  pale  legs,  bright  and  large 
combs  and  wattles. 

For  general  stamina  and  vigor,  select  well-propor- 
tioned birds;  the  early  hatched  and  matured  generally 
being  the  most  desirable  for  breeders;  birds  as  close  to 
standard  type  and  conformity  as  possible.  Vigor  can 
generally    be    discovered   by   the   simple   expedient   of 


96  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

watching  the  actions  of  the  birds  and  in  sticking  to 
breed  type.  The  first  birds  off  the  roost  in  the  morning, 
the  last  to  go  to  roost  at  night,  the  birds  with  large 
appetites,  are  the  strongest  in  constitutional  vigor,  as  a 
rule.  Birds  that  are  slow  to  mature,  slow  in  the  molt- 
ing process,  sluggish  and  of  fair  appetite  may  De  dis- 
carded for  breeding  purposes. 

Another  indication,  where  the  flock  is  bred  up  by  selec- 
tion by  external  characteristics,  is  in  the  matter  of  molt- 
ing. Early  molters  are  not,  contrary  to  general  opinion, 
the  hens  to  keep  for  breeders.  They  are  not  the  best 
layers.  Select  the  late  molters,  for  this  carries  the  surest 
indication  that  they  are  the  best  layers  in  the  flock. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
Care  of  the  Farm  Flock  Breeding  Pen 


Isolate  t:he  Breeding  Pen — Feeding  for  Fertile  Eggs — Selec- 
tion AND  Care  of  Hatching  Eggs — ^Fertility  and  Hatch- 
ability  OF  Eggs — Trap-Nesting  and  Pedigreeing 

We  have  indicated  in  the  preceding  chapter  that  prog- 
ress in  breeding  comes  largely  through  the  selection  of 
individuals  with  reference  to  their  characteristics  which 
are  desirable  to  attain  the  object  the  breeder  has  in 
mind.  Flock  breeding  or  mass  breeding  can  never  be  a 
success,  in  the  large  sense,  for  the  reason  that  the  prog- 
ress of  the  entire  flock  is  limited  by  the  quality  of  the 
worst  specimens  in  it.  In  other  words,  the  progeny  can 
seldom  do  better  than  that  of  the  average  of  the  flock 
from  which  it  springs. 

The  farmer  has  just  two  choices  in  his  breeding  work. 
He  can  use  flock  or  mass  breeding,  as  the  majority  of 
farmers  have  done  for  decades,  or  he  can  use  breeding 
by  selection,  with  an  opportunity  for  advancement  in 
the  direction  in  which  he  goes. 

If  progress  is  desired,  and  it  is  unthinkable  that  it 
should  not  be  desired,  then  the  breeding  flock  which  has 
been  carefully  and  painstakingly  selected,  must  be  iso- 
lated from  the  rest  of  the  flock  and  eggs  set  only  from 
this  carefully  selected  breeding  pen  or  pens.  Through 
this  one  avenue  alone  the  farmer  may  vastly  improve  his 
flock,  whether  his  object  be  egg  production,  market 
fowls  or  show  stock. 

7 


98 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


The  breeding  pen  should  be  composed  of  about  15 
females  and  one  male  for  the  small  egg  breeds  and  about 
eight  females  and  one  male  for  the  other  breeds,  for  the 
very  best  results.  Of  course,  one  can  vary  this  up  or 
down  as  may  be  desired,  but  the  chances  for  other  factors 
to  enter  in,  if  the  size  of  the  breeding  pen  is  increased, 
such  as  infertility  or  weak  germs,  do  not  make  it  advis- 
able. Specialty  breeders  generally  designate  four  fe- 
males and  one  male  "a,  breeding  pen,"  when  selling 
stock  to  beginners. 

The  pen  should  be  housed  in  a  compact,  dry,  well-ven- 
tilated, damp  and  draft  proof  coop,  such  as  was  recom- 
mended in  the  chapter  on  buildings  for  this  purpose. 
The  coop  need  not  be  large  in  size,  it  need  not  be  expen- 
sive or  ornamental  in  construction.     A  fenced  yard  or 

run  may  or  may 
not  be  provided, 
just  as  conditions 
seem  to  warrant. 
The  breeders  can- 
not be  allowed  to 
run  in  this  yard  in 

Fig.    44 — A    Farm    Flock    Breeding    Pen   Where  ,  -,    . 

Mass    Breeding    Is    Followed.  WCt      Or      m  U  Q  Q  y 

weather  if  the  best 
egg  yield  is  to  be  expected  from  them,  or  if  clean  eggs 
for  incubation  purposes  are  to  be  secured  from  them. 
Where  the  house  is  ample,  well-ventilated,  and  the  hens 
are  properly  fed  and  cared  for,  no  outside  yard  or  run 
will  be  necessary  for  the  production  of  strong,  fertile 
eggs. 

Only  fully  matured  stock  should  be  used  in  the  breed- 
ing pen.  Too  many  people  in  their  anxiety  to  rush  mat- 
ters and  ''cash  in"  on  the  profits  they  have  in  mind,  re- 
sort to  the  use  of  pullets  in  the  breeding  pen  at  a  time 
when  they  are  not  fully  matured.     We  have  not  satis- 


Care  of  the  Farm  Flock  Breeding  Pen  99 

fied  ourselves  that  there  is  any  valid  objection  to  the  use 
of  good,  strong,  well-matured  pullets  in  the  breeding  pen 
when  yearlings  are  not  available,  but  the  pullets  should 
not  be  used  until  rather  late  in  their  pullet  year  as  breed- 
ers because  before  that  time  they  are  not  sufficiently  ma- 
tured to  lay  a  good  Q^g,  for  incubating  purposes. 

The  best  results  come  from  the  yearling  hens  which 
lay  a  larger  e^^  than  pullets,  a  more  uniform  egg  in  size 
and  weight  and  an  egg  that  will  hatch  a  larger  chick 
than  those  from  pullet  eggs.  The  yearlings  selected 
from  the  pullet  flock  of  the  previous  year  for  breeding 
purposes,  should  be  selected  early  in  the  winter  and  iso- 
lated from  the  main  laying  flock  in  order  that  they  may 
be  free  from  any  forcing  rations,  artificial  lighting  or 
other  methods  immediately  preceding  the  time  when 
their  eggs  are  desired  for  hatching  purposes.  Hens  that 
have  not  been  forced  to  exert  themselves  unduly  for  high 
records  during  the  present  season  will  give  the  best  re- 
sults in  the  breeding  pen. 

Feeding  for  Fertile  Eggs 

The  breeding  pen  must  have  different  rations  and  care 
from  that  given  the  laying  flock.  The  care  differs  only 
in  respect  to  the  tendency  to  force  the  laying  hens.  This 
should  not  be  done  in  the  case  of  the  breeders,  every- 
thing on  the  contrary,  being  done  to  make  conditions 
as  natural,  comfortable  and  attractive  as  possible. 

Forcing  ingredients  in  the  ration  must  be  omitted. 
This  includes  green  cut  bone,  tankage,  beef  scraps,  bacon 
cracklings,  raw  meat  or  any  other  form  of  meat  scraps 
ordinarily  fed  for  forcing  heavy  egg  production.  We 
do  not  mean  to  imply  that  the  breeder  will  not  produce 
fertile  eggs  if  fed  meat  or  beef  scraps  of  certain  kinds 
in  judicious  quantities  in  the  ration.  "We  are  speaking 


100  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

in  general  terms  because  experience  has  shown  that  most 
of  these  elements  may  be  at  the  bottom  of  infertile  eggs 
or  eggs  showing  poor  hatchability.  Fresh,  raw  lean  meat 
is  excellent  for  breeding  hens,  but  it  is  so  seldom  that  it 
can  or  will  be  fed  in  this  condition  that  it  should  be 
ruled  out,  in  a  general  statement.  Green  cut  bone  should 
be  barred  absolutely  from  the  rations  of  breeders  be- 
cause it  results  in  poor  fertility  and  hatchability  of  the 
eggs.  The  same  objection  applies  to  tankage  and  meat 
scraps,  but  in  less  degree.  If  they  are  fed  in  limited 
quantities,  they  will  do  no  harm. 

The  best  ration  for  breeding  fowls  is  one  made  up 
entirely  of  clean,  wholesome  grains  and  ingredients,  sup- 
plemented by  green  food.  The  latter  is  almost  an  ab- 
solute necessity,  as  in  the  case  of  laying  hens.  It  does 
much  to  promote  the  good  health  of  the  fowls  and  is 
eagerly  devoured  by  them.  As  a  general  rule,  do  not 
feed  heavily  of  it,  as  one  would  to  layers  on  a  full  forc- 
ing ration.    Excessive  quantities  also  acts  on  the  bowels. 

Grit,  charcoal,  shell  and  water  should  be  before  the 
hens  at  all  times.  The  importance  of  these  cannot  be 
over-emphasized.  Shell,  especially,  and  water  play  an 
important  part  in  egg  production  and  unless  the  hens 
have  sufficient  shell  they  are  not  likely  to  lay  perfectly 
formed  eggs,  so  desirable  for  incubating  purposes. 

A  simple  and  very  satisfactory  ration  for  the  breeding 
pens,  which  we  have  used  several  seasons  is  as  follows : 
Mash  (for  winter  feeding),  wheat  bran,  two  parts;  corn 
meal,  two  parts ;  ground  oats,  one  part,  and  alf  aKa  meal, 
as  much  as  the  hens  can  be  induced  to  eat.  If  the  mash 
is  moistened  with  milk  and  water  and  fed  fresh  each 
time,  the  hens  will  eat  as  much  as  four  parts  of  the  al- 
falfa meal  in  the  mash.  In  addition,  use  one  part  wheat 
middlings  in  the  mash  mixture. 


Care  of  the  Farm  Flock  Breeding  Pen        101 

This  is  supplemented  with  whole  oats,  cracked  corn 
and  buckwheat  or  wheat,  sprouted  oats  or  other  green 
food,  lean  fresh  meat  if  possible,  otherwise  sweet  milk. 
Feed  the  oats,  buckwheat  and  wheat  lightly  in  the  litter 
in  the  morning  and  the  cracked  corn  at  night  with 
wheat,  two  parts  of  the  corn  to  one  of  wheat.  The  proper 
amount  of  sprouted  oats  per  hen,  after  they  have  be- 
come accustomed  to  them  is  two  ounces  per  hen  once  a 
day.  It  is  not  necessary  to  weigh  them  each  feeding,  but 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  weigh  them  up  for  the  pen  at  the 
start  so  that  you  get  an  accurate  idea  of  the  amount  in 
bulk.  In  starting  to  feed  sprouted  oats  commence  with 
one  ounce  per  hen  and  gradually  increase  the  amount 
until  you  have  them  on  full  feed. 

Whole  oats  and  dry  wheat  bran  in  hoppers  before  the 
hens  all  the  time  is  an  excellent  plan  where  the  fertile 
eg^  mash  is  fed  moistened.  This  will  be  a  valuable  sup- 
plement. If  plenty  of  bran  and  sprouted  oats  or  other 
green  food  is  furnished,  one  can  dispense  with  the  fresh 
lean  beef  or  meat  scraps  entirely.  Commercial  beef 
scraps  composed  entirely  of  lean  meat  will  not  injure 
the  hatching  quality  of  the  eggs,  but  where  it  is  not  com- 
posed of  lean  scraps  it  will  have  some  effect  upon  the 
quality  for  hatching  purposes. 

Selection  and  Care  of  Hatching  Eggs 

Good,  common  sense  should  indicate  to  anyone  at  all 
acquainted  with  eggs  the  kind  and  type  to  select  for  in- 
cubation. If  no  other  rule  than  that  of  selecting  the 
largest  and  most  perfect  eggs  were  followed,  there  would 
be  slight  criticism  to  be  made.  For  such  a  plan  would 
be  a  good  one  and  secure  the  results  desired  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases. 

Irregular,  imperfect,  misshapen  eggs  should  not  be 
selected  for  hatching  purposes.  Eggs  with  "rings  around 


102 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


them"  or  ridges  in  the  shells  seldom,  if  ever,  hatch  good 
chicks.  There  are  variations  in  the  size  and  perfection 
of  eggs  as  well  as  in  breed  type  or  color  markings  and 
the  careful  breeder  will  not  breed  from  hens  showing 
these  characteristics.  Small  eggs,  it  should  be  kept  in 
mind,  will  produce  small  chicks  that  are  very  likely  to 
be  handicapped  from  the  very  start,  although  this  is  not 
always  the  case.  On  the  other  hand,  excessively  large 
eggs  are  no  more  desirable  for  hatching  purposes. 

The  nice,  smooth,  perfectly  formed  eggs  of  uniform 
size  and  weight,  striking  a  golden  mean  between  the  two 
extremes,  are  the  desirable  eggs  for  incubation.  Some- 
times they  will  weigh  26  to  28  ounces  to  the  dozen  and, 


Fig.  45 — Ideal  Quarters  for  Breeding  Pen. 


again,  they  will  average  30  ounces.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  majority  of  eggs  best  suited  for  incubation  pur- 
poses will  weigh  between  26  and  30  ounces  per  dozen. 
Small  pullet  eggs  are  not  ordinarily  desirable.  We  have 
purchased  eggs  from  specialty  breeders  at  a  long  price 
and  been  disappointed  when  they  arrived  and  were 
found  to  be  small  pullet  eggs,  but  the  results,  in  one  case 
at  least,  turned  out  to  be  exceptionally  fine.  This  is 
stated  merely  to  show  that  there  are  exceptions  to  all 


Care  of  the  Farm  Flock  Breeding  Pen        103 

rules,  but  these  exceptions  only  serve  to  prove  the  rule. 
The  fact  remains  that  small  eggs  or  pullet  eggs  of  small 
size  should  not  be  set  as  a  general  proposition. 

It  would  seem  that  anyone,  on  taking  thought,  should 
know  that  certain  practices  which  are  indulged  in  sav- 
ing eggs  for  hatching  are  likely  to  interfere  with  the 
best  results  from  the  eggs.  People,  however,  are  sub- 
ject to  carelessnesses  which  penalize  them  and  seldom 
take  thought  until  trouble  arises.  Hatching  eggs  that 
are  carefully  selected  from  stock  in  turn  carefully  se- 
lected represent  the  fruit  of  painstaking  effort.  They 
are  too  valuable  to  be  needlessly  impaired  in  their  value. 

The  very  best  way  to  handle  hatching  eggs  is  to  set 
them  the  same  day  they  are  laid.  The  longer  the  eggs 
are  held,  the  less  valuable  they  will  be  and  the  smaller 
the  size  of  the  chick  hatched,  due  to  the  evaporation  of 
the  moisture  in  the  egg.  "Where  the  breeding  pens  are 
of  sufBcient  size  to  furnish  enough  eggs  to  incubate  every 
day  or  two,  the  quality  of  the  chicks  will  be  found  to  be 
a  great  deal  better  than  where  the  eggs  are  kept  even  a 
week  after  being  laid. 

It  is  possible  to  hatch  chicks  from  eggs  several  weeks 
old,  but  it  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  it.  There  is  slight 
reason  why  the  farmer  should  hold  his  eggs  more  than 
one  week  for  hatching  purposes.  If  his  incubator  is  too 
large,  it  will  pay  him  to  buy  two  or  three  smaU  ma- 
chines for  the  special  purpose  of  hatching  his  eggs.  If 
he  has  a  number  of  small  machines,  say  of  50-egg  ca- 
pacity, he  can  resort  to  pedigree  breeding  by  the  simple 
expedient  of  setting  the  eggs  from  one  pen  in  one  of  the 
machines  and  those  from  another  pen  in  another  ma- 
chine. If  he  has  a  mammoth  machine,  he  can  follow  the 
same  plan  by  starting  a  tray  at  a  time. 

Eggs  kept  for  hatching  purposes  that  are  not  set  im- 
mediately should  be  turned  every  day,  but  once  each 


104  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

day  is  sufficient  and  they  should  be  handled  gently. 
Rough  turning  is  not  necessary  and  it  is  claimed  by  some 
experts  that  frequent  turning  injures  the  albumen.  The 
eggs  should  be  kept  in  a  temperature  of  less  than  50  de- 
grees in  order  to  prevent  the  rapid  evaporation  of  mois- 
ture that  takes  place  in  cases  where  the  temperature  is 
over  that  figure. 

They  should  be  kept  in  flat  trays  and  not  in  the  ' '  pat- 
ent" egg  cabinets  one  so  often  sees  where  the  eggs  are 
placed  upright  on  the  small  end.  Eggs  should  lie  in 
their  natural  position,  which  is  flat,  just  as  they  do  in 
the  nest  or  in  the  incubator  trays.  To  stand  them  on 
the  small  end  places  the  germ  in  an  improper  position 
and  interferes  with  normal  development. 

Fertility  and  Hatchability  op  Eggs 

Not  all  fertile  eggs  will  hatch  chicks  and  riot  all  chicks 
that  hatch  will  be  strong  and  vigorous  enough  to  de- 
velop into  the  kind  of  fowls  desired.  The  question  of 
fertility  and  hatchability  of  eggs  is  one  which  has  chal- 
lenged the  best  thought  of  breeders  and  experimental 
scientists  for  many  years.  It  is  not  yet  certain  that  we 
know  all  the  factors  influencing  this  question,  but  we 
do  know  a  great  many  things  which  have  a  bearing  upon 
the  subject. 

Fertility  is  almost  entirely  a  question  resting  with  the 
male  bird.  It  is  seldom,  indeed,  that  a  male  heading  a 
breeding  pen,  that  has  gone  through  the  several 
processes  necessary  in  careful  selection  before  he  attains 
that  position,  will  be  constitutionally  incapable  of  prop- 
erly fertilizing  the  eggs,  although  it  does  occur  now  and 
then.  It  seems  that  the  feeding  of  breeders  has  a 
tremendous  influence  upon  the  hatchability  of  the  eggs, 
and  improper  care  and  housing  conditions  may  also  play 


Care  of  the  Farm  Flock  Breeding  Pen        105 

their  part  in  weakening  the  germs,  but  a  sterile  male  is 
a  very  rare  occurrence. 

A  number  of  breeders  have  reported  that  eggs  from  a 
breeding  flock  which  did  not  hatch,  but  that  contained 
chicks  at  the  start  of  the  test,  can  soon  be  changed  in 
inherent  character  by  the  simple  expedient  of  changing 
the  feeding  ration  along  the  lines  suggested  in  a  pre- 
ceding paragraph.  One  breeder  states  that  within  three 
weeks  after  changing  the  ration  he  was  able  to  secure 
hatching  eggs  from  a  breeding  pen  that  produced  good, 
strong  chicks,  while  the  eggs  before  the  ration  was 
changed  would  not  hatch.  This  indicates  that  the  feed- 
ing and  care  was  at  fault. 

Just  what  influence  the  weather  has  upon  the  hatch- 
ability  and  fertility  of  hatching  eggs  has  not  been  accu- 
rately determined,  so  far  as  we  know,  but  it  does  seem  to 
have  an  effect.  In  cold,  raw  spring  weather  we  have 
noticed  a  general  complaint  about  the  fertility  of  eggs, 
not  only  in  general  farm  flocks,  but  among  the  flocks  of 
commercial  poultrymen.  In  one  season  recently,  the 
best  hatches  we  had  records  of  were  around  50  per  cent. 
Anyone  will  recognize  that  this  is  ordinarily  a  very  low 
percentage.  Proper  rations,  housing  and  care  did  not 
seem  to  correct  entirely  the  adverse  effect  of  the  weather. 
Just  what  this  effect  is,  or  what  the  cause  of  it  is,  we  are 
unable  to  state. 

Strong,  vigorous  male  birds  must  be  selected  for  the 
breeding  pens  and  due  reference  given  to  their  age  and 
probable  breeding  value.  If  a  male  bird  is  old  and  ap- 
parently has  his  best  service  behind  him,  he  should  be 
mated  to  a  very  few  females,  less  than  the  ordinary  num- 
ber, for  the  best  results.  Sometimes  poor  f ertilityr  or 
hatchability  is  due  to  the  attempt  to  make  the  male  bird 
serve  too  many  females.  One  farmer  has  written  us 
within  the  past  few  days  in  which  he  stated  that  he  has 


106  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

used  only  four  males  to  200  hens  the  past  few  seasons 
and  that  his  fertility  has  averaged  over  95  per  cent  for 
each  year.  All  the  comment  we  can  make  upon  this  is 
that  he  has  been  extremely  fortunate.  It  is  seldom,  if 
indeed  ever,  that  any  such  results  can  be  expected  from 
male  birds. 

The  proportion  of  males  to  females  to  use  for  the  best 
results  is  one  male  to  10  or  15  females  in  the  egg  breeds 
such  as  Leghorns,  Campines  and  Minorcas,  and  one  male 
to  seven  or  eight  females  in  the  heavier  breeds  such  as 
Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes  and  Reds  is  as  high  a  pro- 
portion as  can  be  counted  upon  to  give  the  best  results. 
The  size  of  the  breeding  flock  also  has  an  important  ef- 
fect upon  the  fertility  to  be  obtained  from  a  given  num- 
ber of  males.  It  may  seem  to  be  contradictory  to  say 
that  the  larger  the  flock  the  less  the  number  of  males  re- 
quired, and  the  smaller  the  flock  the  larger  the  number 
of  males  required,  but  it  is  true,  nevertheless. 

Every  breeder  can  determine  the  question  to  his  own 
satisfaction  by  testing  the  fertility  of  eggs  from  breed- 
ing pens  by  checking  the  results  obtained  from  different 
pens  against  each  other.  If  he  is  using  trap-nests  and 
is  pedigreeing,  he  will  soon  learn  a  great  deal  about  the 
individual  characteristics  of  different  hens  in  the  breed- 
ing pens.  He  will  find  that  some  hens  throw  an  unusu- 
ally large  proportion  of  clear  or  infertile  eggs ;  that  other 
hens,  while  exceptionally  high  layers,  are  poor  breeders, 
and  that  hens  having  the  highest  percentage  of  fertile 
eggs  often  have  a  low  percentage  of  hatchability.  As  soon 
as  characteristics  of  this  nature  are  discovered,  and  they 
seem  to  be  due  to  the  hen  rather  than  to  other  considera- 
tions, it  is  wise  to  eliminate  these  individuals  from  the 
breeding  pens,  because  the  chances  are  that  the  char- 
acteristics are  hereditary  and  are  likely  to  be  trans- 
mitted. This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  hens  show- 
ing poor  fertility  of  eggs  laid. 


Care  of  the  Farm  Flock  Breeding  Pen         107 

The  handling  of  the  hatching  eggs  has  an  effect  upon 
the  hatchability  which  should  be  reasonably  apparent  to 
all.  No  matter  how  strong  the  germ  in  the  egg,  it  can 
be  materially  weakened  by  improper  handling  not  only 
prior  to  incubation,  but  during  the  process. 

Improper  turning  of  the  eggs  during  incubation,  im- 
perfect moisture  control,  and  lack  of  adequate  cooling  of 
the  eggs  all  seriously  affect  the  hatchability  of  eggs. 
Eggs  that  are  not  cooled  or  turned  at  all  during  the 
process  of  incubation  will  develop  very  poor  hatches,  as 
compared  with  eggs  that  have  been  properly  handled, 
every  other  consideration  being  absolutely  equal.  The 
temperature  in  which  the  eggs  are  cooled  has  an  effect 
upon  the  value  of  the  cooling  and  must  be  regulated  in 
time  accordingly.  Recommendations  along  this  line  will 
be  found  in  the  Chapter  on  Incubation  and  should  be 
carefuUy  followed  for  the  best  results. 

Plenty  of  green  food  in  the  ration  improves  the  fer- 
tility and  hatchability  of  eggs  and  should  not  be  denied 
the  breeders.  Moisture  control  and  cooling  tend  to 
weaken  the  shell  fiber  so  that  the  chicks  can  escape  at 
the  proper  time,  and  must  be  taken  care  of,  if  results 
are  to  be  obtained.  Bulky  elements  in  the  mash  ration 
are  especially  valuable  in  promoting  fertility  and  hatch- 
ability,  as  recommended  elsewhere  in  this  chapter. 

Trap-Nesting  and  Pedigreeing 

The  greatest  value  of  the  trap-nest  comes  in  its  use  in 
the  breeding  pen,  where  it  makes  pedigreeing  possible. 
There  are  objections,  serious  objections,  to  the  general 
us  of  the  trap-nest  by  farmers  in  large  flocks  because  of 
the  close  and  confining  attention  they  demand.  Com- 
mercial breeders  who  are  spending  their  entire  time  in 
the  business  cannot  well  afford  to  do  without  the  trap- 


108  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

nest  from  the  day  the  pullets  go  into  the  laying  houses 
until  they  are  disposed  of,  because  it  is  the  one  sure 
road  to  progress  and  profit. 

The  farmer,  however,  can  spot  the  desirable  laying 
type  hens  and  pullets  by  the  external  methods  of  culling, 
some  of  which  are  exceedingly  efficient  and  accurate.  He 
can  select  the  pullets  to  go  into  the  laying  houses  by  this 
method  and  then  can  select  the  breeders  for  the  next  sea- 
son, at  the  end  of  the  first  layhig  year,  by  the  simple 
process  of  picking  the  most  desirable  individuals  in  type 
and  station,  giving  due  reference  to  the  culling  points 
found  valuable  in  choosing  the  good  layers.  These  meth- 
ods will  not  be  as  certain  of  finding  the  exceptional  hens 


Fi^.    46 — An    Excellent    Breeding    Pen    of    White    Wyandottes.       Pedigree 
Breeding   Is   Easily   Practiced   with    Small    Fens. 

in  each  flock,  but  they  will  insure  some  progress  and  get 
away  from  the  heavy  liability  imposed  by  general  trap- 
nesting. 

But  the  small,  carefully  selected  breeding  pen,  which 
is  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  laying  flock,  which  is 
small  in  numbers  should,  by  all  means,  be  trap-nested 


Care  of-  the  Farm  Flock  Breeding  Pen        109 

during  the  breeding  season  in  order  that  pedigree  breed- 
ing may  be  used. 

Pedigree  breeding  is  nothing  mysterious  and  not 
laborious  with  a  small  breeding  pen.  It  is  simply  the 
keeping  of  an  accurate  record  of  the  parentage  of  each 
chick  so  that  the  records  of  performance  may  be  checked 
up,  in  an  effort  to  locate  the  prepotent  individuals  in  the 
flock  from  which  to  base  future  matings.  The  actual  me- 
chanics of  pedigree  breeding  are  based  upon  the  trap- 
nest  and  no  one  has  a  right  to  claim  that  he  is  pedigree 
breeding  who  is  not  using  the  trap-nest. 

The  process  may  be  described  as  follows :  As  soon  as 
a  hen  is  taken  from  the  trap-nest,  her  leg  band  number 
is  written  on  the  egg  she  has  laid  so  as  to  identify  it.  A 
record  is  kept  of  the  laying  performance  of  each  hen  in 
the  pen  in  order  to  furnish  an  index  of  her  probable 
yearly  record.  The  eggs  from  the  different  hens  in  the 
Ijreeding  pen  are  either  incubated  under  different  hens, 
in  different  compartments  of  the  incubator  or  in  differ- 
ent machines.  Where  they  are  all  incubated  together, 
the  eggs  from  the  same  hens  should  be  placed  in  coarse 
cheese-cloth  sacks  just  before  they  are  ready  to  pip  so 
that  the  chicks  after  they  escape  from  the  shells  do  not 
become  mixed.  As  soon  as  they  are  dry  and  are  taken 
from  the  machine  or  from  under  the  different  hens,  they 
are  given  a  distinctive  toe  punch  and  that  toe  punch  is 
entered  on  the  record  of  their  dams.  The  sire  is  the 
male  heading  the  whole  pen,  or  it  may  be  an  individual 
sire,  as  where  individual  matings  are  made. 

In  this  way  the  percentage  of  the  various  chicks  pro- 
duced from  the  breeding  pen  is  preserved  and  can  be 
used  for  future  reference  in  mating  up  future  breeding 
pens.  The  performance  of  different  progeny  will  be 
found  to  excel  that  of  other  progeny;  it  will  be  found 
that  the  male  mated  to  a  certain  hen  will  produce  ex- 


110  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

ceptional  pullets,  while  mated  to  another  hen,  he  may- 
produce  exceptional  cockerels,  and  some  matings  will 
produce  nothing  of  value  at  all.  The  whole  value  of 
pedigreeing  is  that  it  serves  to  clear  up  the  work  and  to 
remove  the  necessity  of  the  breeder  working  entirely  in 
the  dark  as  to  his  breeding  operations. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation 


Hatching  With  Hens — The  Modern  Incubator  for  Hatching 

— How  to  Handle  the  Incubator — Mammoth.  Incubators 

AND  Their  Management — Eunning  a  Hatchery 

Hatching  with  hens  on  the  farm  has  been  a  compara- 
tively common  practice  until  within  the  last  few  years. 
It  is  still  in  common  practice  on  many  farms  where 
small  flocks  are  produced  each  year  for  home  consump- 
tion. But  hatching  with  hens  is  of  slight  economic  im- 
portance on  those  farms  where  any  serious  attention  is 
given  to  the  farm  flock.  The  labor  element  involved, 
the  large  loss  in  chicks  bound  to  occur  through  accident 
or  otherwise  under  this  system,  the  constant  necessity 
of  fighting  lice  and  mites  attacking  the  chicks  through 
the  hens,  are  the  chief  reasons.  Another  reason,  one 
that  is  often  the  controlling  reason,  is  the  fact  that  it  is 
impossible  to  produce  a  large  and  uniform  flock  of 
youngsters,  such  as  is  necessary  where  a  large  number  of 
layers  is  desired  each  year,  by  this  method. 

There  is  no  weight  to  be  given  to  the  old  and  wide- 
spread idea  that  hens  only  can  hatch  good,  strong  chicks. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  hen  today  is  not  as  efficient  an 
incubating  agency  as  the  modern  incubator.  This  may 
agitate  some  people,  but  it  is  nevertheless  a  fact.  The 
hen  can  never  be  absolutely  depended  upon  by  the  at- 
tendant ;  she  may  escape  from  the  nest  and  remain  away 
for  hours  at  the  critical  period ;  she  may  become  unruly 
and  tramp  the  whole  setting  into  a  mass  of  broken  and 


112  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

blasted  hopes,  and  she  has  an  unhappy  faculty  of  step- 
ping on  the  largest  and  best  chicks  and  killing  them 
through  her  clumsiness.  The  management  of  an  incuba- 
tor may  scare  some  people,  but  no  incubator  in  the  world 
ever  offered  as  much  potential  trouble  as  an  ordinary 
setting  hen. 

No  doubt  there  are  good  and  efficient  setting  hens 
which  make  excellent  mothers.  If  they  can  be  econom- 
ically used  to  incubate  hatching  eggs,  there  is  no  reason 
why  they  should  be  discarded,  but  we  feel  that  the  surest 
chance  of  the  greatest  profit  and  the  least  cost  in  incuba- 
tion lies  in  the  direction  of  the  incubator  and  the  brooder. 

Where  hens  are  to  be  used  for  hatching,  some  general 
observations  will  be  in  order.  In  the  first  place,  do  not 
make  the  mistake  of  setting  the  first  hens  to  become 
broody  in  the  spring.  These  hens  are  the  best  and  most 
efficient  layers  in  the  whole  flock  because  they  are  the 
ones  that  have  been  laying  all  winter.  If  the  farmer  dis- 
penses with  their  services  in  the  laying  flock  and  permits 
them  to  incubate  his  hatching  eggs,  he  will,  in  fact,  be 
setting  eggs  from  the  poorest  layers  in  the  flock  and 
hatching  them  with  the  best  layers.  The  poorest  layers, 
the  ones  that  have  loafed  all  winter  and  started  to  lay 
only  when  spring  weather  comes  on  are  the  drones  of 
the  flock  and  the  farmer  is  unwittingly  a  party  to  propa- 
gating his  flock  from  the  least  valuable  individuals  in  it. 

Provide  the  hens  that  are  set  with  a  nice,  roomy  nest 
in  a  quiet,  secluded  spot  where  they  will  not  be  molested 
by  the  other  hens.  It  is  a  mistake  to  set  them  in  the  hen 
house  where  every  other  cranky  hen  can  have  a  chance 
to  bother  them. 

An  empty  orange  crate,  which  can  be  secured  at  any 
grocery  store,  makes  an  ideal  nest  for  setting  hens.  Each 
crate  will  accommodate  two  hens.  Take  one  of  the  slats 
off  the  side  (the  top  one)  and  place  a  layer  of  paper  on 


Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation  113 

the  bottom  and  a  nice  nest  of  excelsior  or  clean  straw 
on  top.  Some  people  take  a  strip  of  grass  sod  and  turn 
it  upside  down  and  place  it  in  the  nest,  but  we  can  see 
no  particular  advantage  in  the  practice.  Ordinary 
straw  or  clean  excelsior  will  make  a  fine  nest. 

It  is  true  that  one  does  not  have  to  fill  lamps,  adjust 
regulators  or  shovel  coal  when  hatching  with  hens,  but 
it  is  likewise  true  that  one  has  to  feed  the  hen,  see  that 
she  gets  some  exercise,  that  lice  are  kept  down,  and  that 
she  doesn  't  stay  off  the  nest  too  long.  This,  in  turn,  re- 
quires time  and  attention  amounting  to  as  much  or  more 
than  incubators  require. 

The  Modern  Incubator  fob  Hatching 

It  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  advance  any  reasons  in 
favor  of  the  modern  incubator.  It  has  proved  its  own 
case  so  conclusively  to  the  thousands  of  commercial 
poultrymen  and  to  hundreds  of  thousands  of  farmers 
and  small  flock  raisers  all  over  the  country.  The  over- 
whelming majority  of  all  commercial  flocks  are  replen- 
ished every  year  from  incubator  chicks  hatched  from 
eggs  laid  by  hens  in  turn  hatched  in  incubators. 

The  incubator  has  been  perfected  to  such  a  high  state 
as  an  efficient  hatching  machine  that  it  is  now  possible 
to  produce  greater  uniformity  in  chicks,  and  to  hatch 
better  chicks,  than  can  be  hatched  by  hens.  This  is  what 
might  be  called  a  bald  statement,  but  it  is  unquestion- 
ably true.  Better  chicks  are  hatched  today  in  the  aver- 
age mammoth  incubator,  properly  handled,  than  can  be 
hatched  by  hens.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  mois- 
ture problem  is  scientifically  regulated  and  by  applica- 
tion of  every  automatic  and  scientific  principle  neces- 
sary the  maximum  results  are  obtained  from  the  egg. 


114  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

We  are  perfectly  aware  of  the  fact  that  many  people 
secure  poor  results  from  their  attempts  to  hatch  chicks 
from  incubators.  The  first  two  or  three  hatches  are  very 
apt  to  be  disappointing  in  results,  simply  because  the 
operator  is  unfamiliar  with  all  the  details  necessary  for 
success,  and  forgets  or  leaves  out  something.  Conditions 
that  may  influence  hatches  where  small  machines  are 
used  do  not  occur  as  frequently  in  the  large  mam- 
moth machines  because  everything  possible  is  automatic- 
ally controlled.  Even  alarm  systems  are  installed  on 
these  machines  to  warn  the  operator  when  the  tempera- 
ture goes  down  too  low  or  up  too  high.  This  would  be, 
of  course,  impracticable  in  the  small  machine.  The 
regulation  of  the  moisture  supply,  and  the  temperature, 
rests  almost  entirely  upon  individual  judgment,  allow- 
ing an  opportunity  for  the  novice  to  make  mistakes. 

But  these  are  speedily  overcome  by  those  who  use 
common  sense  and  make  an  effort  to  understand  what 
they  are  about  and  how  to  obtain  the  best  results.  The 
incubator  is  not  a  producer  of  weak,  puny  chicks  of 
limited  constitutional  vigor.  If  it  does  produce  such 
chicks,  one  of  two  things  have  occurred :  Either  the  ma- 
chine has  not  been  operated  absolutely  according  to  di- 
rections or  else  the  breeding  stock  or  the  way  in  which 
the  breeding  stock  has  been  handled  is  at  fault. 

Some  judgment  should  be  exercised  in  buying  the 
incubator.  There  is  a  wide  choice  offered  the  farmer, 
and  machines  can  be  secured  at  almost  any  price  to  fit 
the  purse.  Cheap  machines  are  almost  invariably  se- 
lected by  beginners  and  it  requires,  as  a  rule,  more  skill 
to  secure  good  hatches  from  such  machines  than  from 
machines  more  carefully  and  painstakingly  manufac- 
tured. 

One  need  not  necessarily  select  the  highest-priced  ma- 
chine on  the  market,  but  there  is  generally  a  reason  why 


Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation  115 

some  machines  cost  more  than  others.  One  may  be 
certain  that  that  reason  is  not  the  increased  profits 
of  the  manufacturer,  for  stiff  competition  tends  to 
prevent  an  unreasonable  profit.  The  difference  in 
price  is  largely  due  to  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  ma- 
terials going  into  the  machine  and  the  care  with  which 
it  is  put  together. 

The  first  cost  is  not  the  sole  criterion  of  value  in  any 
appliance  and  this  is  just  as  true  of  incubators  as  of  any- 
thing else.  A  machine  cheap  in  first  cost,  if  it  will  not 
give  the  best  of  results  for  its  purpose,  is  the  most  ex- 
pensive machine  that  can  be  bought.  Machines  that  ad- 
mit of  imperfect  and  haphazard  regulation,  that  are 
made  of  improperly  seasoned  material  and  have  a  ten- 
dency of  sucking  moisture  out  of  eggs  as  a  sponge  takes 
up  water,  are  not  to  be  recommended.  Use  care  in 
selecting  your  incubator,  giving  due  reference  to  your 
needs  and  to  the  future. 

Most  people  buy  machines  too  small  in  size.  They 
do  not  plan  for  the  future.  If  there  is  any  thought  at 
all  of  expanding  in  the  immediate  future,  it  will  pay  to 
buy  as  large  a  machine  as  possible  to  take  care  of  the 
needs  you  have  in  mind.  This  will  eliminate  the  accu- 
mulation of  a  number  of  smaller  machines,  which  in- 
crease the  labor  of  management  as  many  times  as  there 
are  machines.  Then,  again,  incubators  will  seldom  ac- 
commodate as  many  eggs  as  they  are  rated.  A  machine 
rated  to  accommodate  120  eggs  will  seldom  handle  more 
than  100  eggs  and  due  allowance  should  be  made  in  this 
direction. 

How  TO  Handle  the  Incubator 

The  best  place  to  operate  the  incubator  is  unquestion- 
ably in  a  cellar.  A  place  must  be  selected  where  the 
average  temperature  does  not  greatly  fluctuate,  because 


116  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

this  makes  it  difBcult  to  maintain  an  even  temperature 
in  the  machine.  Where  a  room  in  the  residence  is  se- 
lected the  tendency  is  to  heat  up  during  the  day  and  to 
cool  down  the  temperature  during  the  night.  This  out- 
side temperature  has  an  effect  upon  the  temperature  in 
the  machine  and  makes  it  extremely  difficult,  especially 
in  days  of  changeable  weather  outside,  to  keep  the  tem- 
perature where  it  belongs  in  the  machine.  If  no  cellar 
is  available,  select  a  room  where  there  is  the  least  fluc- 
tuation of  temperature  at  all  times  as  the  most  satisfac- 
tory in  which  to  secure  the  best  results.  This  is  espe- 
cially important  because  it  will  be  found  extremely  diffi- 
cult in  the  fluctuating  warm  and  cold  weather  in  spring, 
when  cold  snaps  are  likely  to  come,  to  maintain  the  tem- 
perature. 

The  machine  should  be  leveled  up  so  that  the  egg 
chamber  is  perfectly  level.  This  is  necessary  in  order 
that  there  may  be  a  uniform  distribution  of  heat  in  all 
parts  of  the  chamber.  If  the  machine  is  not  level,  it  will 
be  found  that  different  parts  of  the  egg  chamber  will  be 
maintaining  different  temperatures.  One  can  demon- 
strate the  truth  of  this  statement  by  placing  a  number 
of  thermometers  in  different  parts  of  the  chamber.  The 
best  way  to  level  the  machine  will  be  to  use  an  ordinary 
carpenter's  level. 

The  next  point  is  to  fill  the  lamp  and  start  the  ma- 
chine. Run  it  for  several  days,  in  the  meantime  care- 
fully adjusting  the  regulator  screw  until  it  is  maintain- 
ing an  even  temperature.  It  is  best  not  to  attempt  the 
regulation  of  the  machine  until  the  egg  chamber  is  thor- 
oughly heated.  This  will  require  several  hours.  Ad- 
just the  machine  to  an  average,  full,  well-rounded  flame 
and  after  the  machine  is  regulated  do  not  change  the 
regulator  screw,  but  increase  or  diminish  the  tempera- 
ture in  the  egg  chamber  by  increasing  or  diminishing 


Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation  117 

the  size  of  the  flame.  The  fact  that  the  regulator  arm 
rises  rapidly  after  the  eggs  are  put  in  the  machine  or 
after  cooling  the  eggs  should  not  be  a  cause  for  alarm  or 
an  immediate  changing  of  the  regulation,  because  this 
is  a  tendency  that  is  bound  to  occur.  Soon  it  will  settle 
Jown  and  the  egg  chamber  temperature  will  then  come 
up  to  the  proper  point  before  the  regulator  permanently 
rises. 

The  most  persistent  tendency  on  the  part  of  people 
running  incubators  for  the  first  time,  which  seriously 
interferes  with  the  chances  of  a  successful  hatch,  is  the 
tendency  to  "tinker"  with  the  regulator  during  the 
hatch.  It  is  this  one  temptation  which  ruins  more 
hatches  and  causes  more  of  the  so-called  "incubator" 
chicks  to  be  brought  into  the  world  than  anything  else. 
The  operator  should  have  the  courage  of  his  convictions 
and  be  willing  to  give  the  machine  a  fair  chance  to  pro- 
duce. If  he  is  worried  and  convinced  that  the  regula- 
tion needs  to  be  adjusted,  it  will  pay  him  to  keep  a  close 
watch  on  the  machine  for  several  hours  and  if  no  change 
in  temperature  has  been  made,  then  he  may  properly 
change  it  to  the  desired  point,  but  this  will  seldom,  if 
ever,  occur  when  the  machine  has  been  properly  regu- 
lated in  the  first  instance. 

Where  the  temperature  has,  for  some  unaccountable 
reason,  gotten  up  several  degrees  too  high,  it  can  be 
quickly  lowered  by  sprinkling  luke-warm  water  lightly 
over  the  eggs,  but  this  should  not  be  done  persistently 
or  it  will  decrease  the  size  of  the  chicks  hatched.  The 
greatest  danger  is  from  overheated  eggs,  while  where  the 
temperature  has  been  under  the  proper  point  for  a  few 
hours  there  is  little  to  be  worried  about  after  the  first 
week,  but  it  should  be  brought  up  as  quickly  as  possible. 

The  lamps  should  be  trimmed  and  filled  every  morn- 
ing rather  than  at  night,  because  there  is  a  tendency,  as 


118  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

everyone  knows  who  has  used  kerosene  lamps  or  lanterns, 
for  the  flame  to  "creep  up"  half  an  hour  or  so  after  it 
has  been  adjusted,  and  this  will  necessitate  lowering  the 
flame  a  good  many  times  during  the  hatch.  If  the  lamps 
were  not  taken  care  of  until  night  there  would  be  more 
of  a  chance  of  the  flame  running  up  too  high  a  tempera- 
ture in  the  machine  and  causing  damage  during  the 
night.  Use  a  high  grade  of  kerosene  because  it  contain^ 
less  carbon  and  is  less  likely  to  smoke  and  catch  fire.  It 
is  also  more  economical  because  it  will  deliver  more  heat 
and  will  not  require  as  much  to  carry  through  a  hatch 
as  the  cheaper  grades.  Sometimes  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  maintain  an  even  temperature  with  cheap  grades 
of  kerosene.  The  lamps  should  always  be  trimmed  and 
filled  after  the  eggs  have  been  turned  and  cooled,  be- 
cause the  presence  of  kerosene  on  the  hands  is  very  apt 
to  cause  trouble.  It  has  been  said  on  good  authority 
that  the  presence  of  kerosene  on  the  shell  wiU  kill  the 
chick  within. 

One  should  commence  to  turn  the  eggs  after  the  third 
day  and  they  should  then  be  turned  twice  a  day  until 
the  first  egg  is  pipped.  Frequent  turning  of  the  eggs 
during  the  process  of  incubation  will  have  a  beneficial 
rather  than  a  detrimental  effect.  If  one  watches  a  hen 
on  the  nest  it  will  be  noticed  that  she  not  only  turns  the 
eggs  twice  a  day,  but  several  times.  It  has  been  demon- 
strated in  the  author's  own  experience  that  eggs  turned 
frequently,  at  least  three  times  a  day,  will  hatch  much 
better  than  eggs  turned  only  once  or  twice  a  day.  It  is 
not  the  mere  turning  that  produces  the  beneficial  re- 
sults, although  that  is  important,  but  it  is  the  contrac- 
tion caused  by  the  change  of  atmosphere,  which  plays 
an  important  part  in  breaking  down  the  fiber  of  the 
shell  and  rendering  it  easier  for  the  chick  to  escape  at 
the  proper  time. 


Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation  119 

The  eggs  should  also  be  cooled  once  each  day  in  addi- 
tion to  the  cooling  they  receive  when  being  turned.  The 
great  purpose  of  cooling  is  to  strengthen  the  chick  and 
to  produce  the  beneficial  result  on  the  shell  that  we  have 
already  mentioned.  There  are  some  authorities  who  are 
beginning  to  question  whether  or  not  it  is  necessary  to 
cool  the  eggs,  but  for  our  own  part  we  are  not  willing  to 
give  up  or  advise  the  giving  up  of  the  practice.  Anyone 
who  cares  to  experiment  can  demonstrate  to  himself  the 
value  of  cooling  by  refraining  from  cooling  one  hatching 
of  eggs.  He  will  be  surprised  at  the  difference  in  results 
due  to  the  cooling  process.  Various  rules  are  given  for 
the  length  of  time  in  which  to  cool  the  eggs.  We  have 
found  that  since  the  temperature  of  the  room  always 
varies  somewhat  that  it  is  a  better  plan  to  follow  the 
simple  index  of  placing  the  hands  on  the  eggs  and  as 
soon  as  they  appear  cool,  they  should  be  returned  to  the 
machine.  Note  we  say  cool,  not  cold.  As  the  hatch  pro- 
gresses, this  will  require  more  time,  which  is  desirable. 

The  eggs  should  be  tested  as  soon  as  possible  and  all 
infertiles  and  dead  germs  removed  in  order  to  give  the 
room  to  the  others.  While-shelled  eggs  can  be  tested  in 
four  or  five  days  after  being  placed  in  the  machine  for 
infertiles,  while  brown-shelled  eggs  can  seldom  be  tested 
before  the  seventh  day  and  oftentimes  not  until  later, 
due  to  the  inability  to  see  through  the  shell.  There  are 
many  methods  of  testing  eggs,  but  we  have  found  a 
simple  way  which  is  a  time-saver  and  should  com- 
mend itself  to  every  poultryman.  Simply  pull  out  the 
egg  tray  and  run  an  electric  flash-light  around  under  the 
tray  close  to  the  under  side  of  the  eggs.  The  infertiles 
and  dead  germs  can  then  be  lifted  out  with  the  other 
hand.  It  is  not  necessary  to  handle  all  the  eggs  in  order 
to  find  the  undesirables. 


120  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

Another  method  is  to  set  the  tray  on  the  edges  of  two 
chairs  and  run  the  flash-light  around  under  the  tray. 
Any  number  of  methods  will  suggest  themselves  to  the 
operator.  One  good  plan  is  to  simply  place  the  egg  be- 
tween the  two  hands  and  hold  it  up  to  a  strong  light, 
turning  slowly. 

All  eggs  that  are  perfectly  clear  are  discarded  as 
being  infertile  and  eggs  having  decidedly  dark  rings 
around  the  embryo  are  also  thrown  away  because  they 
are  imperfectly  fertilized  and  will  not  hatch  chicks. 
Eggs  which  seem  to  be  imperfectly  developed  or  consid- 
erably behind  the  average  in  their  development  may 
also  be  taken  out  so  that  the  others  may  have  the  room. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  crack  open  the  eggs  that  are  dis- 
carded, place  them  in  separate  saucers  and  examine 
them.  One  can  get  a  better  grasp  of  the  development  of 
the  embryo  through  this  method  than  any  other  that  we 
might  suggest.  Experience  of  this  sort  will  reveal  many 
things  to  the  incubator  operator.  For  instance,  if  one 
cares  to  make  the  experiment,  it  will  be  found  that  eggs 
carried  at  a  low  temperature  develop  chicks  that  have  a 
hard  time  getting  out  of  the  shell,  especially  where  the 
temperature  is  carried  too  low  the  first  week.  Too  much 
cooling  the  first  week  will  cause  the  same  condition.  The 
chicks  produced  will  be  "sticky"  and  stick  to  the  shell 
and  anything  else  they  come  in  contact  with,  and  they 
generally  hatch  a  day  or  two  late.  If  any  irregularity 
in  the  temperature  is  to  be  had  it  is  better  to  run  it  too 
high  than  too  low.  If  run  two  degrees  too  high  the 
chicks  will  hatch  early,  but  they  will  have  a  better  chance 
than  those  retarded  by  low  temperatures  or  too  frequent 
cooling  the  first  week.  Where  the  temperature  is  run 
too  high  it  will  tend  to  cause  the  yolk  to  harden  and  the 
chick  after  taking  it  into  its  system  will  be  unable  to 
digest  it.  These  chicks  seldom  live  more  than  a  week 
after  being  hatched. 


Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation  121 

The  correct  temperature  to  maintain  is  largely  a  mat- 
ter for  the  manufacturer  of  your  machine  to  dictate.  He 
understands  his  machine  and  knows  from  his  experience 
just  what  it  should  be.  Various  manufacturers  differ 
in  their  recommendations  in  this  respect.  Some  suggest 
that  the  temperature  be  carried  at  102  degrees  the  first 
week,  103  degrees  the  second  week  and  1031/^  degrees 
the  third  week,  while  others  suggest  102,  103  and  104, 
respectively.  No  set  rule  can  be  announced.  That  is  for 
the  manufacturer  of  your  machine  to  indicate. 

Mammoth  Incubators  and  Their  Management 

The  actual  process  of  incubation  of  eggs  in  mammoth 
machines  is  not  materially  different  than  in  the  ordinary 
machines.  The  chief  point  of  difference  is  that  the  mam- 
moth machines  handle  considerably  more  eggs  at  but 
slightly  increased  cost  of  hatching  than  the  smaller, 
lamp-heated  machines.  Ten  thousand  eggs  at  one  hatch- 
ing from  a  single  machine  is  not  an  uncommon  occur- 
rence with  mammoth  machines. 

The  mammoth  machine  has  rendered  possible  to  the 
poultry  world  the  same  advantages  automatic  machinery 
brought  to  the  farmer  in  other  lines.  The  ordinary  in- 
cubator made  it  possible  for  the  farmer  and  the  poultry- 
man  to  increase  his  output  at  slight  additional  cost  over 
the  handling  of  the  setting  hen;  the  mammoth  machine 
has,  in  turn,  done  the  same  thing  for  the  man  who  found 
it  hard  to  carry  on  his  business  with  a  large  number  of 
smaller  machines. 

The  mammoth  incubators  are  unusually  efficient 
hatching  machines.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  in  visit- 
ing with  farmers  and  poultrymen  all  over  the  Middle 
West  the  past  10  years  that  we  have  never  encountered 
a  single  one  owning  a  mammoth  machine,  regardless  of 


122  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

make,  that  was  dissatisfied  or  who  felt  that  better  re- 
sults could  be  obtained  with  smaller  machines  or  set- 
ting hens.  The  exact  reverse  is,  on  the  other  hand,  true. 
Practically  every  one  stated  that  the  mammoth  machine 
gave  better  results  than  they  had  ever  experienced  be- 
fore. 

There  is  one  outstanding  desirable  feature  of  the 
mammoth  machines  which  should  appeal  to  all.  They 
can  be  purchased  in  small  units  or  sections  and  expand 
as  the  business  grows,  new  sections  being  added  to  the 
same  circuit  and  receiving  its  heat  from  the  same  heater. 
The  mammoth  machines  generally  require  the  construc- 
tion of  special  incubator  cellars,  if  the  cellar  to  the  resi- 
dence is  not  available  or  large  enough.  This  can  be  done 
economically,  however,  by  building  the  brooder  house 
above  and  the  same  heating  plants  can  be  made  to  do 
double  service. 

As  to  the  actual  mechanics  of  running  the  mammoth 
incubator,  there  is  little  detailed  advice  that  we  can 
give.  Practically  every  machine  operates  on  a  prin- 
ciple slightly  different  from  its  nearest  competitor  and 
each  machine  must  be  handled  in  a  manner  peculiar 
only  to  it.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  the  heat- 
ing apparatus. 

The  best  advice  that  can  be  offered  is  to  give  full  faith 
and  credit  to  the  manufacturer's  instructions.  He 
knows  more  about  the  manner  in  which  the  machine 
should  be  operated  for  the  best  results  than  Dick  Jones, 
or  Tom  Brown,  the  interested  neighbors. 

Be  particularly  careful  to  maintain  the  manufac- 
turer's directions  in  regard  to  the  temperature  that  is 
to  be  maintained  in  the  egg  chambers.  Very  often  they 
recommend  that  the  temperature  be  brought  to  103  de- 
grees as  soon  as  possible  after  the  eggs  have  been  placed 


Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation  123 

in  the  machine  and  that  temperature  maintained  as 
evenly  as  possible  throughout  the  hatch.  While  this  is 
contrary  to  the  general  advice  given  in  the  management 
of  incubators,  it  is  best  to  do  as  the  manufacturer  rec- 
ommends. We  have  personally,  in  experiments,  main- 
tained an  even  temperature  of  103  degrees  throughout 
the  entire  hatch  in  small  machines  and  have  had  satis- 
factory results.  The  reason  we  happened  to  do  this 
was  because  we  were  pedigree  hatching  by  placing  dif- 
ferent eggs  in  the  machines  two  or  three  days  apart  and 
we  felt  that  it  would  be  better  for  all  the  eggs  to  main- 
tain an  even  temperature  throughout  than  to  try  to 
fluctuate  it.  One  can  resort  to  this  plan,  but  it  will  be 
found  that  103  degrees  is  a  little  too  hot  the  first  few 
days  and  to  maintain  that  temperature  is  to  lose  a  few 
more  chicks  that  otherwise  would  be  the  case  due  to  too 
rapid  development  of  the  embryo  at  first. 

Running  a  Hatchery 

There  is  a  very  good  profit  to  be  made  at  the  present 
time  in  the  baby  chick  business,  especially  where  the 
hatchery  is  supplied  with  eggs  from  a  flock  maintained 
right  on  the  place.  The  time  is  coming  when  the  com- 
mercial hatcheries  are  going  to  find  it  increasingly  hard 
to  secure  business  because  they  have  lost  the  confidence 
of  the  poultry  buying  public.    • 

In  the  days  when  they  had  the  field  to  themselves  they 
did  not  hesitate,  in  order  to  supply  the  great  demand  for 
baby  chicks,  to  hatch  eggs  from  flocks  of  indifferent  bred 
fowls  and  sell  them  as  pure-bred — to  buy  up  eggs  here, 
there  and  everywhere  and  advertise  them  as  coming 
from  certain  strains  popular  in  the  public  mind;  other 
unscrupulous  individuals  organized  fake  hatcheries,  took 
orders  for  baby  chicks  and  then  politely  pocketed  the 


124  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

money.  We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  all  the  commercial 
hatcheries  were  guilty  of  dishonest  practices,  for  this  is 
not  true,  but  there  were  a  sufficient  number  of  dishonest 
people  masquerading  under  the  title  "hatchery"  to 
make  the  public  at  large  unwary  of  the  whole  outfit. 

The  real  sincere  hatchery  operators  are  operating  and 
always  have  operated  their  own  breeding  flocks,  many 
of  them  maintaining  a  number  of  separate  farms  on 
which  to  carry  on  their  breeding  work.  But  the  temper 
of  the  times  is  commencing  to  be  and  will  be  more  so  in 
the  future,  to  buy  as  much  from  actual  poultry  breed- 
ers as  possible. 

This  means  that  the  farmer  who  is  building  up  a 
good  flock  of  laying  hens  for  commercial  egg  purposes 
will  be  in  a  position  to  capitalize  the  demand  and  make 
an  additional  profit  from  his  eggs  in  the  spring  months 
when  market  prices  slump  by  marketing  them  in  the 
form  of  baby  chicks. 

All  that  the  farmer  or  small  poultryman  needs  to 
realize  on  this  demand  is  sufficient  hatching  capacity  to 
take  care  of  the  eggs  produced  for  him  by  his  flock  of 
breeders.  If  he  wishes  to  sell  general  utility  stock,  he 
can  secure  sufficient  male  birds  to  mate  to  his  general 
laying  flock  and  sell  the  entire  yield  during  the  spring 
months  in  the  form  of  hatching  eggs  and  baby  chicks. 

This  will  call  for  a  mammoth  incubator,  a  good,  well- 
bred  flock  of  layers  and  breeders,  and  sufficient  adver- 
tising to  market  the  product.  As  a  rule  an  advertise- 
ment run  in  state  farm  papers,  local  papers  or  a  few 
poultry  journals  will  furnish  all  the  demand  that  can 
be  supplied,  if  the  price  is  right. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
Successful  Brooding  of  Chicks 


Objects   A^fD   Methods   of   Brooding — Fireless   Brooders — Oil 

Lamp  Brooders — Crude  Oil  Brooders — Portable  Coal 

Hover  Brooders — Brooder   House   Methods — 

Care  op  Chicks  On  Large  Scale 

There  is  no  system  of  brooding  that  can  be  expected 
to  exceed  the  hen  in  giving  the  chicks  the  proper  brood- 
ing. If  we  can  approximate  the  hen  in  the  results  ob- 
tained, then  our  method  of  brooding  is  a  success  whether 
it  be  an  old  box  covered  with  blankets  or  the  most  ex- 
pensive brooding  equipment  ever  manufactured. 

The  constant  effort  is  to  give  the  chicks  the  care  they 
would  receive  from  the  hen  and  to  maintain  these  results 
in  the  face  of  large  flocks  of  chicks  often  running  to 
several  thousand  from  a  single  hatch.  The.  first  and  pri- 
mary object  is  to  protect  the  chicks  from  chilling  on  the 
one  hand  and  over-heating  on  the  other.  In  other  words, 
we  must  strive  to  keep  the  chicks  comfortable  regardless 
of  the  condition  of  the  weather.  Unless  we  do  this, 
our  losses  are  bound  to  be  enormous. 

The  development  of  brooder  equipment  has  kept  pace 
with  the  progress  made  by  the  entire  poultry  industry 
in  the  past  15  years.  A  few  years  ago  we  used  the 
old  box  brooders  fed  by  a  kerosene  lamp,  which  were 
death  traps  to  say  the  least.  Most  of  them  were  square 
or  oblong  in  shape  with  square  corners,  in  which  the 
chicks  had  an  unreasonable  habit  of  piling  up  at  just 
the  wrong  time,    tramping    each    other    to  death  and 


126  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

"sweating"  until  those  that  did  survive  lost  their  feath- 
ers and  were  seriously  stunted. 

Then  we  rushed  to  the  other  extreme  and  resorted  to 
the  injurious  use  of  tireless  brooders  and  suffered  more 
losses  through  piling  up  and  crowding  when  a  sudden 
cold  snap  came  along.  But  out  of  the  chaos  that  existed 
then  there  finally  came  the  development  of  brooding 
systems  which  have  afforded  the  poultryman  depending 
upon  artificial  brooding  methods  a  breathing  spell.  Ap- 
pliances were  developed  which  corrected  the  earlier 
evils  of   the  lamp   and  box  brooder   and   the   attempt 


Fig.  47 — Outside  Runs  for  Chicks  in  the  Brooder  House  Strengthen  Their 
Legs  and  Insure  Better  Development. 

was  made  to  forestall  the  tendencies  of  the  chicks  and 
correct  the  evils  which  had  been  responsible  for  these 
tendencies,  thereby  insuring  better  results  with  less  at- 
tention and  worry  on  the  part  of  the  attendant.  We 
then  had  round  brooders  of  the  portable  type,  made  of 
galvanized  iron  or  other  fireproof  material,  where  the 
chicks  could  not  pile  up  in  the  corners,  and  where  the 
ventilation  was  given  consideration  so  that  the  chicks 
would  not  smother  to  death  so  easily. 

Later  came  the  large  canopy  hovers,  using  both  coal 
and  crude  oil  which  tended  to  make  the  brooding  of  large 


Successful  Brooding  of  Chicks  127 

flocks  of  chicks  possible  at  a  single  operation;  then  we 
had  the  hot  water  systems  used  in  connection  with  the 
brooder  houses,  the  portable  coal  hover  brooder  using 
a  stove  which  furnished  a  more  uniform  and  dependable 
heat  than  the  small  lamp  flame  brooders. 

These  large  and  portable  brooders  have  revolution- 
ized the  handling  of  baby  chicks  just  as  the  mammoth 
incubator  revolutionized  the  hatching  of  eggs,  They 
have  made  it  possible  for  the  commercial  poultryman 
and  the  farmer  to  hatch  their  flocks  of  layers,  whether 
1,000  or  10,000  in  one  or  two  hatches,  brood  them  at 
the  same  time  and  bring  the  whole  flock  to  maturity  at 
the  very  same  time.  The  tremendous  advantage  of  a 
flock  of  young  pullets  uniform  in  size  and  in  develop- 
ment cannot  well  be  over-estimated. 

Dependable  brooding  equipment  has  also  made  pos- 
sible early  hatches  at  a  season  when  natural  brooding 
would  be  out  of  the  question.  This  permits  the  com- 
mercial poultryman  and  the  farmer  to  mature  his  pul- 
lets in  time  for  the  fall  egg  trade  when  prices  commence 
to  mount,  and  to  market  the  surplus  cockerels  as  broil- 
ers at  the  season  of  the  year  when  prices  are  the  highest. 

Brooding  equipment  is  dependable  today,  provided  a 
reasonable  amount  of  common  sense  is  used  in  handling 
such  appliances.  The  man  who  uses  his  head  and  who 
is  on  the  job  every  day  and  often  in  the  night  need 
have  no  fear  of  the  brooding  equipment  offered  him  to- 
day. ''Eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  success"  was 
never  truer  than  in  the  case  of  brooding  young  chicks 
properly. 

FiEELESS  Brooders 

Every  now  and  then  questions  come  to  us  from  farm- 
ers asking  for  plans  for  building  fireless  brooders  and 
whether  or  not  they  are  a  success.  So  far  as  we  know, 


128  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

the  fireless  brooder  gained  its  popularity  largely  through 
the  widespread  advocacy  of  the  "Philo  system"  of  rais- 
ing poultry.  Many  people,  especially  people  who  are 
trying  to  raise  large  flocks  of  chicks,  have  been  misled 
into  thinking  that  it  would  be  entirely  practicable  for 
their  own  needs  and  would  be  more  economical  than 
brooders  requiring  artificial  heat. 

The  author  has  personally  used  fireless  brooders  for 
many  years,  and  while  he  realizes  their  great  worth  and 
has  proved  to  his  own  satisfaction  that  they  are  a  dis- 
tinct success  under  proper  conditions,  he  does  not  rec- 
ommend them  for  people  who  are  brooding  large  flocks 
of  chicks.  The  labor  element  involved  is  practically 
as  great,  in  the  case  of  large  flocks,  as  the  use  of  hens 
would  be  for  a  moderately-sized  flock.  The  man  with 
several  thousand  chicks,  or  several  hundred  for  that 
matter,  would  be  seriously  handicapped  by  their  use. 

The  fireless  brooder  is  particularly  valuable  and  does 
its  best  work  when  used  on  comparatively  small  flocks 
of  chicks.  While  it  is  possible  to  brood  50  to  100  chicks 
in  these  brooders,  depending  upon  their  size,  the  first 
week,  it  is  necessary  to  divide  the  chicks  each  week  as 
they  grow,  in  order  to  prevent  over-heating  and  losses, 
and  this  means  increasing  the  equipment  and  the  labor 
necessary.  For  a  flock  of  50  to  100  chicks,  however, 
they  can  be  used  to  excellent  advantage  and  will  give 
wonderful  results. 

The  fireless  brooder  cannot  be  used  outside  in  cold 
weather.  They  must  be  used  inside  a  brooder  house, 
barn  or  shed  where  the  temperature  does  not  go  down 
low  enough  during  the  day  to  chill  the  chicks.  Used  in 
connection  with  the  *'Philo  system"  brooder  coops  they 
are  a  distinct  success  even  in  chilly  weather,  but  no 
commercial  poultryman  or  farmer  can  afford  to  utilize 


Successful  Brooding  of  Chicks  129 

that  system.    It  is  primarily  a  system  of  intensive  poul- 
try for  baek-lotters  and  town  people. 

A  fireless  brooder  can  be  constructed  in  a  few  minutes 
by  anyone  handy  with  a  saw  and  hammer.  Make  the 
box  18  inches  square  and  10  inches  high.  Cut  a  door 
in  one  side  and  place  it  on  hinges  so  that  the  chicks  can 
be  shut  in  when  desired.  Place  a  bottom  on  it  but  no 
top.  Cleats  are  nailed  on  the  inside  so  that  a  cloth- 
covered  frame  will  fit  down  on  the  inside  of  the  brooder 
close  enough  to  drop  down  over  the  backs  of  the  chicks. 
This  cloth-covered  frame  is  just  an  ordinary  frame 
made  of  lath  or  other  light  stuff  to  which  an  old  piece 
of  woolen  blanket  is  tacked  so  that  it  will  sag  down  in 
the  middle.  On  top  of  this  one  places  other  cloths  or 
woolen  pieces,  as  necessary,  to  keep  the  chicks  warm. 
One  can  tell,  half  an  hour  after  they  have  been  placed 
in  the  brooder,  by  running  the  hand  over  their  backs 
whether  they  are  too  cold  or  too  warm  and  adjust  the 
coverings  accordingly. 

Oil  Lamp  Brooders 

Oil  lamp  brooders,  practically  all  of  which  are  of  the 
portable  type,  are  also  to  be  used  in  connection  with  a 
colony  coop,  brood  coop  or  brooder  house  and  are  not 
"outdoor"  brooders  in  the  sense  that  they  can  be  set 
down  outside  without  affording  other  protection  to  the 
chicks,  except  on  mild  days.  Then  they  must  be  brought 
in  at  night.  Ordinarily,  these  brooders  are  not  rated 
to  handle  more  than  100  to  150  chicks  per  brooder,  and 
they  generally  will  not  handle  comfortably  and  to  the 
best  advantage  all  they  are  rated  to  handle.  As  the 
chicks  increase  in  size,  they  outgrow  the  brooders  and 
should  be  divided  into  smaller  flocks  for  the  best  results. 

These  brooders,  practically  all  of  which  are  construct- 
ed of  galvanized  iron,  depend  upon  small  kerosene  lamps 


130  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

for  the  heating  source.  The  lamps  must  be  trimmed 
and  filled  each  day,  although  most  of  them  have  suffi- 
cient capacity  to  run  two  days,  but  regardless  of  this, 
one  must  not  be  careless  and  neglect  the  lamps  a  single 
day.  The  wick  forms  a  crust  and  the  tendency  is  to 
lose  in  the  amount  of  heat  generated  unless  this  crust 
is  promptly  removed  each  day. 

The  earlier  brooders  of  this  type  were  a  distinct  death 
trap  for  many  reasons.  Generally,  the  heating  plant  or 
lamp  was  so  exposed  to  the  portion  of  the  brooder  where 
the  chicks  were  that  the  chicks  were  subjected  to  the 
lamp  fumes,  the  ventilation  was  bad  and  the  chicks  died 
by  the  scores.    All  this  has  been  changed. 

The  lamp  compartment  is  now  entirely  separate  and 
away  from  the  chick  compartment.  There  is  absolutely 
no  chance  of  lamp  fumes  ever  getting  at  the  chicks,  as 
a  dead  air  space  is  provided  which  draws  the  heat 
through  this  drum  and  then  out  of  a  flue  and  away. 
The  principle  of  the  present-day  portable  oil  lamp  brood- 
er is  as  near  that  of  the  mother  hen  as  it  is  possible 
for  a  mechanical  device  to  be.  The  heat  is  supplied  over 
the  chicks  just  as  with  the  hen ;  the  brooders  are  round 
and  a  cloth  curtain  extends  around  the  whole  canopy 
down  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  floor.  This  tends  to 
retain  the  heat  in  the  chick  compartment,  but  if  the 
chicks  become  warm  they  will  scatter  out  and  stick  their 
heads  through  the  curtain,  just  as  they  do  through  the 
hen's  feathers,  and  get  fresh  air.  They  often  will  roost 
several  inches  outside  the  cloth  curtain. 

For  the  farmer  or  poultryman  who  is  raising  small 
flocks,  and  by  this  we  mean  up  to  1,500  chicks,  we  be- 
lieve there  is  no  more  economical  brooding  device  than 
these  oil  lamp  brooders.  They  can  be  used  right  in  col- 
ony coops,  or  unused  pens  in  the  laying  house  to  good 
advantage,  provided  the  temperature  is  not  too  low  to 


Successful  Brooding  of  Chicks 


131 


tend  to  cause  the  chicks  to  chill.  They  are  most  effi- 
cient, however,  for  flocks  less  than  1,000  in  size.  Other 
systems  of  brooding  can  be  found  which  call  for  less 
labor,  but  where  the  cost  of  installation  is  a  big  item, 
it  will  be  best  to  start  out  with  these  brooders. 

During  the  first  week  a  temperature  of  100  degrees 
should  be  maintained  in  the  brooder.  The  lamp  should 
be  capable  of  generating  more  heat  than  this  for  emer- 
gencies, as  in  cold  snaps,  but  that  is  as  hot  as  is  neces- 
sary under  the  hover.  The  temperature  is  gradually 
decreased  as  the  chicks  grow  and  develop  allowing  96 
degrees  the  second  week,  92  degrees  the  third  and  88 


Fig.  48 — Hollow  Tile  Brooder  House  on  a  Dallas  County,  Iowa,  Farm. 

degrees  the  fourth  week.  However,  it  is  best  to  follow 
the  directions  of  the  manufacturer,  if  they  differ  from 
these  figures. 

The  application  of  artificial  heat  is  generally  con- 
tinued until  the  chicks  are  feathered  out.  This  will 
vary  in  different  breeds.  Leghorns  will  feather  in  four 
weeks,  as  a  rule,  if  properly  handled  and  fed,  while  the 
heavier  breeds  have  hardly  started  by  that  time.  It  is 
seldom  necessary  to  continue  heat  for  Leghorns  after 
the  fourth  week,  unless  they  are  hatched  extremely 
early,  but'  the  hover  should  be  retained,  allowing  them 
to  roost  uHder  it  without  heat  when  they  seem  to  be  com- 
fortable. We  generally  retain  the  hovers  until  the  chicks 


132  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

are  old  enough  to  teach  to  roost  on  low  perches.    They 
are  more  contented  when  this  is  done. 

Crude  Oil  Brooders 

There  are  many  brooders  now  on  the  market  which 
burn  crude  oil  or  cheap  kerosene  and  produce  a  "blue 
flame"  heat.  These  brooders  are  chiefly  recommended 
by  the  manufacturers  because  they  generate  more  heat 
and  it  is  therefore  possible  to  brood  more  chicks  under 
the  same  hover.  For  the  most  part  they  utilize  the 
canopy  idea  found  in  the  coal  burning  brooder  stoves 
and  attempt  to  compete  with  these  devices.  They  handle 
larger  flocks  than  the  small  lamp  brooders  and  seem 
to  be  desirable  in  many  particulars. 

Like  the  small  lamp  brooders  they  must  be  used  in- 
doors in  pens  provided  for  the  chicks.  They  are  espe- 
cially desirable  in  colony  coops.  They  generally  come 
in  sizes  handling  flocks  of  100  chicks  up  to  500.  The 
chief  advantages  given  are  the  increased  flocks  brooded, 
automatic  control  of  the  oil,  elimination  of  the  tendency 
of  the  flame  to  smoke  and  the  maintenance  of  an  even 
temperature.  It  is  claimed  that  these  flames  do  not  tend 
to  "creep  up"  as  an  ordinary  lamp  flame  does  at  times. 

Portable  Coal  Hover  Brooders 

The  coal  burning  brooder  is  another  of  the  steps  made 
in  the  progress  of  modern  poultry  methods  which  has 
made  possible  the  present-day  large  scale  operations. 
It  has  made  possible  the  brooding  of  large  flocks  of  chicks 
at  a  single  operation,  and  in  an  economical  and  eflScient 
manner.  It  utilizes  hard  coal  rather  than  oil  or  kero- 
sene because  it  supplies  a  more  uniform  and  economical 
heat  for  the  chicks. 


Successful  Brooding  of  Chicks  133 

One  filling  of  the  stove  will  run  the  colony  hover  for 
24  hours.  The  regulation  is  automatic  and  the  coal 
feeds  down  from  the  hopper  into  the  fire  box  as  rapid- 
ly as  it  is  needed.  It  is  claimed  that  but  a  few  cents 
worth  of  coal  is  consumed  per  day,  various  estunates 
running  from  three  to  six  cents,  depending  upon  the 
size  and  the  price  of  coal. 

The  coal  burning  hover  is  a  great  boon  to  the  large 
flock  raiser.  It  lightens  labor,  cuts  costs  of  production 
and  eliminates  fuss  and  worry.  It  is  the  brooding  sys- 
tem preeminent  for  the  colony  house  system  of  rearing 
young  stock  and  the  two  methods  go  hand  in  glove  to- 
gether. 

One  investigator  states:  "The  ventilation  with  a  coal 
stove  brooder  is  ideal.  Located  in  a  large  room  with 
an  abundance  of  fresh  air,  which  is  constantly  circulat- 
ing under  the  hover,  the  chicks  are  always  supplied  with 
pure  fresh  air.  The  metal  hovers  are  so  constructed 
that  the  heat  is  thrown  back  on  the  floor,  making  a  warm 
zone  next  to  the  stove.  Beyond  this  the  air  is  cooler, 
and  the  farther  away  from  the  stove  the  chicks  get  the 
cooler  the  air  becomes,  so  that  they  can  be  accomodated 
with  any  temperature  desired,  from  the  outside  air  to  the 
extreme  heat  of  the  warm  inner  zone.  This  distribution 
of  heat  is  very  effective  and  highly  desirable,  especially 
in  the  early  spring  or  during  a  period  of  bad  weather. 
During  the  day  the  chicks  will  be  found  all  over  the 
brooder  room,  but  at  night  they  gather  into  the  warmer 
zone  about  a  foot  from  the  stove  and  in  a  circle  about 
a  foot  wide  extending  entirely  around  the  stove.  Owing 
to  the  unobstructed  circulation,  the  chicks  are  supplied 
with  an  abundance  of  pure  air  while  they  do  not  suffer 
from  lack  of  heat. 

"Our  experience  for  the  past  two  years  indicates  that 
the  heat  can  be  better  controlled  with  these  coal  brood- 


134  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

ers  than  with  oil  lamps.  The  source  of  heat  is  larger 
and  consequently  more  uniform.  The  greatest  difficulty 
arising  from  allowing  the  ashes  to  clog  the  fire-bed  or 
to  accumulate  in  the  ash-pit  so  as  to  cover  the  drafts 
and  kill  the  fire.  To  overcome  this  the  fire  should  be 
shaken  down  twice  each  day  and  the  ashes  removed. 

"The  temperature  under  the  hover  should  vary  with 
the  age  of  the  chicks.  The  brood  should  be  started  at 
about  110  degrees  F.,  gradually  dropping  this  about  10 
degrees  each  week  for  the  first  four  weeks.  This  change 
in  temperature  must  be  governed  by  a  careful  study  of 
the  chicks  and  the  outside  weather  conditions.  If  the 
weather  is  very  cold  or  the  chicks  show  a  tendency  to 
pile  up  or  huddle  up  in  groups  during  either  the  day 
or  pight,  the  heat  should  be  increased." 

Brooder  House  Methods 

Brooder  houses  concentrate  the  flock  of  chicks  under 
one  roof  and  tend  to  make  the  expense  and  work  of 
brooding  more  economical.  They  also  make  it  possible 
for  a  central  heating  plant  to  not  only  warm  the  entire 
house  to  the  proper  temperature  for  the  best  results,  but 
also  furnish  the  heat  for  the  individual  hovers  in  each 
pen.  This  reduces  labor  and  expense,  to  a  degree,  and 
makes  it  possible  for  one  man  to  realize  the  most  from 
every  motion  made. 

Brooder  houses  maintaining  a  centralized  heating 
plant  must,  of  necessity,  use  hot  water  rather  than  hot 
air  as  the  mode  of  heating.  The  plant  is  generally  run 
by  a  hard  coal  stove,  although  soft  coal  may  be  used  in 
them  if  proper  pains  are  exerted  to  give  the  fire  the  ex- 
tra attention  demanded. 

Several  thousand  chicks  can  be  brooded  at  the  same 
time  under  this  system  and  can  be  hatched  and  developed 


Successful  Broodmg  of  Chicks  135 

to  an  age  of  four  to  six  weeks  before  outside  weather 
will  permit  them  being  outdoors.  To  the  fancier  and 
the  commercial  poultry  farmer  this  offers  a  distinct  ad- 
vantage that  can  well  be  appreciated  by  anyone  who 
has  a  grasp  of  conditions  in  the  poultry  world. 

Brooder  houses,  however,  are  not  a  necessity  for  the 
small  flock  raiser,  or  even  for  the  farmer  who  is  main- 
taining a  flock  up  to  a  1,000  laying  hens.  The  farmer 
can  more  economically  get  along  with  the  colony  system 


Fig.    49 — Colony    Brooder    House    With    Small    Run    Attached    for    First 
Few  Weeks. 

of  brooding,  even  though  more  labor  is  involved,  be- 
cause the  initial  cost  is  less  and  the  houses  can  be  used 
the  entire  year.  The  specialized  brooder  house  can  sel- 
dom be  properly  utilized  for  other  stock,  unless  the 
colony  coal  stove  brooder  is  the  system  of  brooding 
equipment  used.  These  stoves  can  be  removed  and 
stored  and  the  house  utilized  for  surplus  cockerels  or 
other  stock. 


136  The  Modern  Farui  Hen 

Care  of  Chicks  on  Large  Scale 

It  should  be  apparent  to  anyone  that  chicks  cannot 
be  handled  on  a  large  scale  successfully  unless  every  de- 
tail is  organized  in  the  proper  manner  and  absolutely 
correct  in  principle.  The  method  of  brooding  must  be 
correct,  the  chicks  must  not  be  subjected  to  chillmg  or 
over-heating,  and  they  must  be  closely  watched  at  the 
attendant  at  all  hours  to  be  sure  that  everything  is  all 
right. 

Then  the  methods  of  feeding  must  be  correct  for  the 
particular  purpose  in  mind.  The  ventilation  must  be 
correct  and  cleanliness  must  be  religiously  and  scrupul- 
ously practiced.  There  never  was  a  truer  statement 
than  that  "cleanliness  is  next  to  godliness"  in  success- 
fully brooding  chicks.  The  litter  must  be  kept  clean 
and  sweet,  the  accumulation  of  filth  and  droppings  soon 
fouling  it  and  if  allowed  to  pile  up  for  a  time,  trouble 
is  bound  to  occur. 

The  feed  given  must  be  clean  and  wholesome.  The 
drinking  founts  and  pans  must  be  carefully  and  reg- 
ularly scoured  and  disinfected.  In  other  words,  eternal 
vigilance  and  eternal  vigilance  only  is  the  price  of  suc- 
cess. Nine  times  in  ten  the  troubles  arising  in  the  de- 
velopment of  young  chicks  is  due  to  the  fault — the  omis- 
sion or  the  commission — of  some  wrongful  act  on  the 
part  of  the  attendant.  The  human  element  is  at  the 
bottom  of  almost  every  devilment  arising  m  the  brooder 
house  today,  thanks  to  the  high  state  of  perfection  at- 
tained in  our  housing  plans  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
brooding  equipment. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
How  to  Feed  Poultry  of  All  Ages 


Principles  of  Feeding — Value  of  Eations — First  Feeding  of 

Baby  Chicks — Feeding  Baby  Chicks  to  Feather  Them  Out 

— From   Three  to  Eight  Weeks — Two  Months  to 

Maturity — Feeding  for  Market — Feeding  the 

Laying  Flock — Feeding  the  Breeders 

Feeding  has  been  practically  reduced  to  a  science  in 
tlie  past  twenty  years.  The  average  feeder  today  thinks 
in  terms  of  rations,  whereas  he  formerly  thought  in 
terms  of  individual  grains.  He  has  learned  through 
the  results  achieved  in  experimental  work  that  no  single 
grain  is  a  perfect  ration  supplying  all  the  elements 
necessary  to  promote  economical  growth  and  healthful 
gain,  or  for  any  other  purpose  that  might  be  in  his  mind. 

Variety  is  the  rule  in  nature  and  it  is  through  a  va- 
riety of  grains  and  ingredients  properly  balanced  and 
mixed  with  due  reference  to  their  feeding  properties 
that  the  feeder  secures  the  phenomenal  results  today. 
The  200-egg  hen  and  the  300-egg  hen  are  fully  as  much 
the  result  of  proper  feeding  as  they  are  the  result  of 
proper  breeding.  Hundreds  of  good  hens  in  farm 
flocks  today  are  prevented  from  returning  their  best 
to  the  farmer  because  they  are  not  fed  in  such  a 
way  as  to  get  the  inherent  ability  resting  in  them  into 
play.  One  authority  on  breeding  high  fecundity  in  lay- 
ers has  said  that  the  problem  now  is  to  "  feed  out  the  lay 
already  bred"  in  hens. 

The  foremost  principle  of  feeding  poultry  of  any  age 
is  to  keep  in  mind  the  purpose  you  are  feeding  for  and 


138  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

then  to  bend  every  effort  to  accomplish  that  purpose. 
That  is  the  only  thought  necessary  to  make  economical 
feeding  possible.  Many  people  feed  aimlessly  and  with- 
out giving  due  thought  to  what  they  are  about.  They 
never  stop  to  analyze  the  things  they  are  doing,  or  they 
would  discontinue  many  practices  which  they  can  hardly 
help  but  know  are  a  detriment  to  their  success  in  feed- 
ing. Skipping  a  feeding  every  day  or  two  may  be  more 
convenient  for  the  feeder,  but  it  is  not  going  to  secure 
uniform  results  from  the  flock. 


Pig.    50 — Proper    Rations    and    Systematic    Care    Produced    This    Uniform 
Flock  of  Pullets. 

The  scientist,  through  his  examination  of  the  ingredi- 
ents and  properties  necessary  to  accomplish  a  given  re- 
sult has  been  able  to  tell  us  just  what  was  necessary  for 
us  to  do  in  order  to  secure  those  results  in  the  most  di- 
rect manner.  He  has  then,  in  turn,  examined  all  of  the 
feeds  and  feed-stuffs  available  and  found  the  proper 
proportions  to  use  in  accomplishing  the  results  sought. 
In  short,  he  has  found  the  means  of  satisfying  the  want. 
There  is  little  remaining  for  the  busy  farmer  or  the 


Hoiv  to  Feed  Poultry  of  All  Ages  139 

commercial  poultryman  but  to  confirm  in  his  own  ex- 
perience the  value  of  the  formulas  and  rations  advo- 
cated. 

Some  rations  are  better  than  others,  but  other  rations 
may  be  more  economical  to  feed,  in  view  of  the  results 
obtained,  and  it  is  wise  for  the  careful  feeder  to  be 
ever  on  the  lookout  for  improvement  in  the  direction  of 
lower  feeding  costs,  as  well  as  in  the  direction  of  re- 
sults. For,  in  the  end,  the  man  with  the  lowest  cost  of 
production  is  the  man  who  is  going  to  be  in  better  con- 
dition to  meet  competition  and  secure  the  maximum  re- 
ward. 

The  first  principle  of  profitable  feeding,  then,  is  to 
secure  the  definite  result  in  mind  as  directly  as  possible, 
and  the  second  principle  is  to  secure  the  result  as  eco- 
nomically as  possible. 


Value  of  Rations 

The  chief  value  of  a  ration  is  that  it  tends  to  secure 
the  result  in  mind  as  directly  as  possible,  and  it  elimi- 
nates practically  all  guess-work  from  the  feeding  oper- 
ations. It  reduces  to  a  simple  process  what  might  other- 
wise be  a  complicated  problem  calling  for  painstaking 
work  in  parceling  out  in  small  lots  the  necessary  ingre- 
dients to  secure  the  total  result  in  mind. 

There  is  one  important  thought  which  should  always 
be  kept  in  mind  in  regard  to  the  feeding  of  certain  speci- 
fied rations  and  that  is  to  feed  the  recommended  ration 
in  its  entirety  or  feed  it  not  at  all.  It  is  impossible  to 
secure  the  larger  results  attainable  by  feeding  a  part  of 
one  ration  and  filling  out  with  a  part  of  another.  The 
various  rations  have  been  formulated  to  supplement 
each  other  and  they  should  always  be  fed  in  their  en- 
tirety. 


140  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

By  this,  v?e  mean  that  if  you  adopt  a  mash  ration 
recommended  for  winter  egg  laying,  be  sure  to  use  the 
scratch  grain  mixture  recommended  with  it.  The  two 
have  been  formulated  to  supplement  each  other  and  if 
one  is  used  without  the  other,  you  are  upsetting  the  bal- 
ance they  have  been  given  by  the  blending  of  the  grains 
for  their  feeding  properties  necessary  for  winter  egg 
production. 

Any  person  who  expects  to  enter  the  commercial  egg 
business,  or  who  is  anxious  to  secure  the  best  returns 
from  a  side-line  flock,  who  persists  in  the  old  haphazard 
way  of  feeding  this  or  that  grain,  is  either  a  fool  or  a 
chump  with  the  odds  in  favor  of  the  proposition  that  he 
is  both.  Yet  hundreds  of  people  refuse  to  adopt  the 
suggestions  in  regard  to  feeding  that  are  to  be  had  on 
every  hand  for  the  mere  asking,  and  then  worry  along 
with  a  non-laying  flock  through  the  winter  months. 
They  are  the  ones  who  spend  good  money  for  fake  egg 
tonics  and  nostrums  which  are  supposed  to  touch  the 
hidden  spring  of  winter  egg  production  and  bring  the 
eggs  by  some  magic -trick,  at  a  dollar  a  bottle  or  can. 

First  Feeding  of  Baby  Chicks 

The  manner  in  which  the  baby  chicks  are  started  out 
is  going  to  determine,  in  a  large  measure,  their  future 
worth.  One  authority  has  said  that  a  chick  properly 
handled  the  first  week  is  half  raised,  and  we  doubt  if 
the  truth  of  the  matter  was  ever  more  graphically  pre- 
sented. Brooding  the  first  week  plays  an  important 
part,  but  equal  to  it  is  the  manner  in  which  you  feed  it. 

There  is  no  arbitrary  time  by  the  clock  when  you 
should  give  the  chicks  their  first  feed.  Some  people  ad- 
vise waiting  as  long  as  72  hours  after  they  are  hatched 
before  giving  them  the  first  feeding.    While  we  recog- 


Bow  to  Feed  Poultry  of  All  Ages 


141 


nize  the  fact  that  nature  has  provided  for  the  first  hours 
of  a  chick's  life,  making  immediate  feeding  unnecessary, 
we  also  incline  to  the  belief  that  nature  should  be  the 
guide  as  to  the  time  to  start  feeding.  As  soon  as  the 
chicks  are  old  enough  to  run  about  and  pick  at  things 
they  are  old  enough  to  have  their  first  feeding.  They 
are  not  going  to  eat  enough  the  first  feedings  to  do  any 
particular  harm  and  they  are  going  to  get  *'on  their 
feet"  quicker  if  the  first  feed  is  proper. 

The  very  first  thing  we  do  is  to  give  the  chicks  a 


Fig.  51 — Young  Stock  Being  Fed  for  Early  Maturity — Dry  Mash  in  Hop- 
per Against  House  and  Trough  for  Moist  Mash  in  Foreground. 

good  drink  of  sweet  milk.  Place  it  in  saucers  and  as  you 
take  each  chick  out  of  the  brooder,  dip  its  bill  in  the 
milk.  Be  sure  that  it  gets  a  good  swallow  of  the  milk. 
Then  sprinkle  a  little  commercial  chick  feed  on  clean 
boards  or  papers  and  try  to  teach  them  to  eat.  As  soon 
as  they  seem  to  become  chilly,  put  them  back  under  the 
hover,  and  keep  them  under  the  hover  as  much  as  pos- 
sible the  first  two  or  three  days.  Feed  them  five  to  seven 
times  a  day  and  not  more  than  10  minutes  at  a  feeding. 


142  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

Give  them  nothing  to  drink  the  first  week  except  clean 
sweet  milk,  if  at  all  possible.  Milk  will  get  them  started 
better  than  anything  else. 

The  secret  of  baby  chick  feeding  is  to  feed  little,  feed 
often  and  feed  regularly.  Regularity  in  feeding  is  worth 
almost  as  much  as  the  proper  ration.  And  lack  of  reg- 
idarity  in  feeding  and  in  care  is  the  big  reason  why  so 
many  people  fail  to  achieve  results  even  where  the  ra- 
tion is  proper. 

Millet  seed  is  a  good  feed  for  the  first  week,  and  we 
have  found  ordinary  commercial  chick  food  to  be  very 
good  for  the  grain  portion.  This  should  contain  as  wide 
a  variety  of  fine  grains  or  cracked  grains  as  possible. 
In  addition,  it  is  well  to  start  them  out  on  a  good  mash 
within  a  day  or  two  after  getting  them  on  feed  and 
after  they  have  learned  to  feed  and  drink  and  take 
care  of  themselves.  The  various  commercial  buttermilk 
mashes  are  very  good,  but  we  prefer  to  feed  it  dry.  In 
fact,  less  losses  are  apt  to  occur  where  all  mashes  are 
fed  dry. 

A  number  of  different  rations  can  be  used  for  the  first 
feeding  of  baby  chicks,  but  it  is  best  to  pick  out  one  good 
one  and  stick  to  it.  The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture gives  the  following  recommendations : 

"The  first  feed  should  consist  of  a  baked  johnnycake 
broken  up  into  small  pieces,  or  hard-boiled  eggs  mixed 
with  stale  bread  crumbs  or  dry  oatmeal,  using  a  su£B- 
cient  amount  of  the  cereal  to  make  a  dry,  crumbly  mix- 
ture. These  feeds  or  combinations  of  feeds  may  be  used 
with  good  results  for  a  week ;  then  gradually  substitute 
for  one  or  two  feeds  each  day  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  finely  cracked  wheat,  cracked  corn  and  pinhead  oat- 
meal or  hulled  oats,  to  which  may  be  added  a  small  quan- 
tity of  broken  rice,  millet  rape  seed,  or  charcoal,  if  ob- 
tainable.   This  mixture  makes  an  ideal  ration.     If  corn 


How  to  Feed  Poultry  of  All  Ages  143 

cannot  be  had,  cracked  kafir  or  rolled  or  hulled  barley- 
may  be  substituted.  A  commercial  chick  feed  contain- 
ing a  variety  of  grains  can  be  bought  from  most  feed 
dealers  and  may  be  used  instead  of  the  home  mixture 
if  desired. 


How  to  Make  Johnnycake  for  Chicks 

Cornmeal,  5  pounds;  infertile  eggs,  6;  baking  soda, 
1  tablespoon.  Mix  with  milk  to  make  stiff  batter  and 
bake  thoroughly.  If  infertile  eggs  are  not  available, 
use  double  quantity  of  baking  soda  and  one-third  pound 
sifted  beef  scraps, 

''When  the  chicks  are  from  10  days  to  two  weeks  old 
use  a  mash  composed  of  the  following,  to  take  the  place 
of  the  johnnycake  or  bread.  All  ingredients  are  meas- 
ured by  weight: 

Bran,  2  parts;  oatmeal,  2  parts;  cornmeal,  1  part; 
meat  scrap,  10  per  cent  of  mixture. 

"This  mash  may  be  placed  in  a  hopper,  where  it  can- 
not be  wasted,  and  left  before  the  chicks  at  all  times, 
or  it  may  be  fed  as  a  moist,  crumbly  mash  once  each 
day,  and  the  grains  fed  the  chicks  three  times  a  day. 
"When  the  chicks  are  eight  to  10  weeks  old  add  1  part 
of  ground  oats,  increase  the  meat  scrap  to  20  per  cent 
and  cornmeal  to  2  parts  and  decrease  the  bran  to  1 
part." 

Keep  dry  wheat  bran  before  the  chicks  from  the  first 
day  in  flat  pans  an  inch  deep.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
elements  in  the  chick  ration  we  have  run  across  and  you 
will  be  surprised  at  the  amount  they  will  eat.  Also  keep 
plenty  of  fresh  water  before  them  (it  should  be  changed 
at  every  feeding),  chick  grit,  and  charcoal.  The  litter 
should  be  fine  chaff  or  short  cut  alfalfa  meal.  We  have 
found  alfalfa  meal  the  very  best  litter. 


144  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

.Feeding  Baby  Chicks  to  Feather  Them  Out 

After  the  chicks  have  gotten  on  their  feet,  the  very- 
first  object  the  feeder  has  in  mind  should  be  to  feather 
them  out.  If  he  will  feed  to  that  end  he  can  generally 
accomplish  the  purpose  from  two  to  several  weeks  soon- 
er than  will  be  the  case  where  ''nature  is  allowed  to 
take  her  course." 

We  have  found  the  persistent  feeding  of  wheat  bran 
to  feather  baby  chicks  out  faster  than  anything  we  have 
run  across.  It  should  be  kept  before  them  dry  from  the 
day  they  are  started  out  until  they  are  practically  ma- 
tured. You  will  be  surprised  at  the  enormous  quan- 
tities they  will  eat  of  it.  It  is  also  supplemented  by  as 
many  elements  derived  from  wheat  as  possible  to  induce 
the  chicks  to  eat.  Wheat  middlings  in  the  mash  mixture 
and  cracked  wheat  in  the  chick  grain  mixture  all  aid  in 
bringing  the  feathers.  It  is  possible  to  feather  Leghorn 
chicks  completely  by  the  time  they  are  around  a  month 
old,  and  it  requires  a  little  more  time  on  the  larger 
breeds. 

From  Three  to  Eight  Weeks 

By  the  timfe  the  chicks  are  three  weeks  old,  especially 
in  Leghorns,  one  should  have  determined  for  what  pur- 
pose they  are  intended  and  they  should  be  fed  for  that 
purpose.  If  they  are  to  be  sent  to  market  as  broilers-, 
they  should  be  fed  a  different  ration  than  if  they  are 
to  be  matured  for  breeders  or  layers.  If  they  are  to  go 
to  market,  they  are  to  be  fed  for  flesh  and  fat,  and  if 
to  be  matured,  they  are  to  be  fed  for  bone  and  muscle. 
And  the  man  or  woman  who  knows  in  detail  the  object 
sought  is  in  a  better  position  to  realize  it  by  making 
every  motion  count. 


How  to  Feed  Poultry  of  All  Ages  145 

Where  the  chicks  are  confined  to  the  brooder  or  col- 
ony house,  keep  a  small  amount  of  chick  grain  mixed  in 
the  litter  to  induce  exercise  and  keep  them  busy.  Wheat 
bran  in  the  boxes  should  also  be  before  them,  and  if  one 
wishes  to  supplement  it  with  a  better  mash,  the  follow- 
ing will  give  excellent  results : 

200  pounds  bran 

100  pounds  fine  oatmeal,  ground  oats  or  rolled  oats 

100  pounds  cornmeal 

75  pounds  sifted  beef  scrap 

35  pounds  bone  meal 

25  pounds  chick  size  charcoal 
2  pounds  salt. 

Supplement  this  mash  with  the  following  grain  ra- 
tion :  200  pounds  chick  size  cracked  corn ;  300  pounds 
cracked  wheat  and  100  pounds  cut  oatmeal.  The  chicks 
are  to  have  access  to  the  dry  mash  at  all  times,  and  the 
grain  mixture  is  given  two  or  three  times  a  day,  just 
enough  to  keep  them  busy. 

Green  food  or  finely  cut  clover  is  supplied  every  day. 
Clip  the  green  shoots  off  sprouted  oats  and  this  will 
be  excellent  for  them.  If  possible  let  them  have  sweet 
milk  to  drink  but  don't  let  it  sour  in  the  pans  between 
feedings. 

Two  Months  to  I^Iaturity 

By  the  time  the  chicks  are  two  months  old,  their  whole 
nature  soon  changes  and  everything  goes  to  the  develop- 
ment of  frame.  They  seem  to  be  light  in  weight  and 
cannot  be  kept  in  good  flesh.  They  have  heavy  appetites 
and  will  eat  an  enormous  amount  of  feed. 

The  object  the  feeder  now  has  in  mind  is  to  keep 
pace  with  the  demands  made  on  their  systems  by  na- 
ture and  to  supply  them  the  elements  needed  as  fast  as 


146 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


possible.  This  is  best  done  by  using  every  effort  to  stim- 
ulate their  appetites  by  feeding  little  and  feeding  often 
and  by  adding  a  moist  mash  to  the  ration  to  encourage 
them  eating  more  than  they  otherwise  would. 

The  simplest  and  best  mash  to  use  for  this  purpose  is 
one  composed  of  equal  parts,  wheat  bran,  corn  meal 
and  ground  oats  or  oatmeal,  thoroughly  mixed,  to  which 
is  added  at  least  two  parts  of  alfalfa  meal,  all  moistened 
until  crumbly  but  not  wet  or  sloppy,  with  sweet  milk. 
Salt  the  mixture  to  taste.  Feed  this  twice  a  day,  in  the 
middle  of  the  forenoon  and 
afternoon,  as  a  supplement 
to  the  other  feeding  done. 
It  does  not  take  the  place 
of  the  mash  mentioned 
above,  it  merely  supple- 
ments it.  Be  regular  in 
your  feeding  time  and  note 
the  great  gains  made  in  de- 
velopment. 

Success  at  this  stage  of 
the  chicks '  development 
rests  in  feeding  every  bit 
the  chicks  can  be  made  to 
eat,  but  not  feeding  so  much  that  they  lose  their  appe- 
tite? and  get  ' '  off  feed. ' '  This  can  best  be  regulated  by 
not  feeding  too  much  of  the  moist  mash  mentioned.  If 
you  leave  them  slightly  hungry  they  will,  go  back  to  the 
litter  or  the  dry  mash  hoppers  and  will  keep  right  on 
working.     That  is  the  secret  back  of  proper  feeding. 

After  the  chicks  are  two  months  of  age  you  can  com- 
mence to  feed 'them  whole  oats.  For  the  first  week  feed 
the  oats  at  noon  after  they  have  been  soaked  in  water 
since  morning.  After  ^  a  week  they  can  be  fed  dry, 
without  any  disastrous  results.    We  believe  whole  oats, 


Fig.  52  —  Five-months-old  pullet 
developed  by  proper  feeding.  Has 
just,  laid"  her  firslfegg. 


Uow  to  Feed  Poultry  of  All  Ages  147 

in  fact,  oats  in  any  form,  to  be  one  of  the  most  valuable 
developing  foods  for  chicks  that  could  be  recommended. 
Feed  all  they  will  eat  in  pans  at  noon. 

Feeding  for  Market 

Where  the  chicks  are  intended  for  broilers  for  market, 
slightly  different  methods  should  be  followed.  They 
are  handled  the  first  three  weeks  as  recommended  above 
after  which  they  are  fed  to  develop  flesh  and  fat.  Suc- 
cess in  market  feeding  comes  through  the  old  secret  of 
feeding  little  and  feeding  often  and  in  being  regular  to 
the  dot  at  each  feeding  period.  The  slightest  deviation 
may  throw  the  chicks  off  and  cause  you  to  lose  some 
of  the  advantages  gained. 

If  all  the  feed  can  be  moistened  with  milk,  so  much 
the  better.  Of  course  the  grain  fed  morning  and  night 
is  not  to  be  moistened,  nor  the  dry  wheat  bran  which  is 
before  them  a!ll  the  time.  They  are  not  permitted  to 
have  dry  mash  because  they  can  be  induced  to  eat  more 
of  the  moistened  mash,  if  it  is  properly  handled.  Grit 
and  water  should  also  be  before  them  all  the  time. 

The  mash,  which  consists  of  equal  parts  wheat  bran, 
cornmjgal  and  groun^_.oats  with  as  much  alfalfa  meal 
as  they  can  be  induced  to  eat,  all  moistened  with  sweet 
milk  and  fed  in  clean  pans,  is  gradually  changed  after 
th§y  are  four  weeks_old,  the  bran  being  changed  to  mid- 
dlings until  one-sixth  of  the  whole  mixture  is  composed 
of  it,  and  after  the  sixth  week  the  corn  meal  is  gradually 
increased.  Salt  the  moisf  mash  to  taste.  Allow  the 
chicks  to  eat  for  10  or  15  minutes  and  then  remove  the 
mash  pans  from  the  pens  until  the  next  feeding,  scat- 
tering a  handful  of  grain  in  the  litter  to  set  them  to 
work.  Chicks  intended  for  broilers  should  be  kept  con- 
fined to  the  colony  coop  or  brooder  pen.    Feed  five  times 


148  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

per  day,  giving  the  grain  mixture  in  the  morning  and 
cracked  corn  at  night  and  the  moist  mash  at  10  o'clock, 
noon  and  3  o  'clock. 

Chicks  fed  regularly  on  this  ration  will  attain  a  weight 
of  two  pounds  at  the  age  of  eight  weeks  for  the  heavier 
breeds  and  a  pound  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  for  Leg- 
horn cockerels  in  the  same  time.  They  are  then  ready 
for  the  broiler  market. 


Feeding  the  Laying  Flock 

We  now  come  to  a  consideration  of  the  question  of 
greatest  interest  to  the  most  people.  What  shall  I  feed 
my  layers  to  secure  the  best  egg  yield?  is  a  common 
question  asked  on  every  hand.  There  is  no  one  best 
ration,  but  there  are  a  number  of  good  rations  which 
every  farmer  should  be  able  to  supply  his  hens.  Feed- 
ing is  not  the  result  of  mysterious  power  or  ability  so 
much  as  it  is  the  result  of  good,  common  sense  in  sup- 
plying the  hens  with  the  elements  necessary  to  make  a 
good  egg  yield  possible. 

Many  people  kick  on  the  fact  that  their  hens  are  eat- 
ing a  great  deal  and  they  think  they  are  "saving" 
money  by  cutting  down  the  amount  fed.  A  more  fool- 
ish idea  was  never  held  than  that.  The  more  a  hen 
eats  the  better  the  chance  that  she  is  a  good  layer.  The 
heavy  laying  hen  will  require  considerably  more  feed 
than  an  average  layer  or  one  that  is  not  laying  at  all. 
Give  the  hens  liberal  feeding  of  the  sort  of  ration  they 
ought  to  have.  They  can't  eat  too  much  of  the  right 
sort  of  feeds. 

Six  good  rations  have  been  worked  out  at  the  govern- 
ment poultry  farm  in  Maryland,  which  are  recommend- 


How  to  Feed  Poultry  of  All  Ages  149 

ed  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for  laying 
flocks.     They  are: 

Ration  No.  1 

Mash  Scratch  Mixture 

16  pounds  corn  meal  1  pound  cracked  corn 

6 14  pounds  meat  scrap  1  pound  wheat 

1  pound  bran  1  pound  oats 

1  pound  middlings 

Ration  No.  2 

2  pounds  corn  or  barley  2  pounds  cracked  corn 

meal  1  pounds  oats 

1      pound  bran  1  pound  wheat  or  barley 

1       pound  middlings 
1      pound  meat  or   fish 

scraps 

Ration  No.  3 

3  pounds  corn  meal  2  pounds  cracked  corn 

1  pound  meat  scrap  1  pound  oats 

Ration  No.  4 

9       pounds  corn  meal  2  pounds  cracked  corn 

5      pounds  middlings  1  pound  wheat 

4  pounds  bran  1  pound  oats 

2  pounds   cottonseed         1  pound  barley 

or  gluten  meal 
2      pounds  meat  scrap 
2      per  cent  bone  meal 

Ration  No.  5 

1  pound  corn  meal  2  pounds  cracked  com 

1  pound  bran  1  pound  wheat 

%  pound  meat  scrap  1  pound  oats 

1  pound  middlings  1  pound  barley 

1  pound  ground  oats 


150  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


Ration  No.  6 


3      pounds   corn  meal         2  pounds  cracked  corn 
1      pound  bran  1  pound  wheat 

1      pound  middlings  1  pound  oats 

1/^  pound  meat  scrap 
Feed  with  table  scraps 
or  cooked  vegetables 

The  Department  gives  these  recommendations  as  to 
feeding :  * '  The  scratch  mixture  should  be  fed  twice  daily, 
preferably  in  deep  litter  from  3  to  5  inches  deep  on  the 
floor  of  the  henhouse.  Feed  about  one-third  of  the  mix- 
ture in  the  morning  and  two-thirds  in  the  afternoon. 
In  the  morning  give  only  what  the  fowls  will  eat  up 
within  half  an  hour  and  at  night  enough  to  fully  satisfy 
them.  Feed  a  mash  either  as  a  dry  or  moist  feed  in 
addition  to  the  scratch  grains.  The  dry  mash  is  the 
more  common  method;  it  should  be  kept  in  a  hopper 
before  the  fowls  constantly.  A  moist  (not  sloppy)  mash 
gives  very  good  results  when  used  by  a  careful  feeder. 
It  should  be  fed  only  once  a  day,  preferably  in  the  morn- 
ing or  at  noon,  and  only  as  much  should  be  fed  as  the 
fowls  will  clean  up  in  from  15  to  30  minutes.  A  moist 
mash  is  very  useful  to  use  up  table  scraps  and  cooked 
vegetables  and  is  greatly  improved  if  mixed  with  milk. 
The  quantity  of  meat  scrap  used  in  the  mash  can  be  re- 
duced in  proportion  to  the  garbage  and  milk  used  .  .  . 

"The  feeder  must  use  his  own  judgment  in  deciding 
how  much  grain  to  give  the  hens,  as  the  amount  of  feed 
which  they  wiU  eat  varies  with  different  pens  and  at  dif- 
ferent seasons  of  the  year.  They  will  eat  more  feed 
in  the  spring  while  laying  heavily  than  in  the  summer 
and  fall  when  laying  fewer  eggs.  A  fair  general  esti- 
mate is  to  feed  about  1  quart  of  scratch  grains  and  an 
equal  weight  of  mash  (about  1%  quarts)  daily  to  13  hens 
of  the  general  purpose  breeds,  such  as  the  Plymouth 


How  to  Feed  Poultry  of  All  Ages  151 

Rocks,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  or  Wyandottes,  or  to  16  hens 
of  the  smaller  or  egg  breeds.  This  would  be  about  7i^ 
pounds  each  of  scratch  grains  and  of  mash  daily  to  100 
Leghorns  and  about  91/^  pounds  each  to  100  general  pur- 
pose fowls.  If  hens  have  free  range  or  large  yards  con- 
taining green  food  a  general  purpose  hen  will  eat  about 
75  pounds  of  feed  in  a  year  and  a  Leghorn  will  eat 
about  55  pounds,  in  addition  to  the  green  stuff  con- 
sumed." 

The  following  ration  is  recommended  in  high  terms 
by  an  Eastern  commercial  egg  farmer  who  has  been 
raising  Leghorns  and  selling  market  eggs  on  a  large 
scale  for  many  years.  The  grain  mixture  consists  in 
summer  of  half  corn  and  half  wheat  and  in  winter  of 
two-thirds  of  corn  and  one-third  wheat.  In  addition, 
the  hens  have  all  the  sprouted  oats  they  will  eat  at  one 
feeding  in  winter.  In  summer  soaked  oats  is  fed  instead 
of  sprouted  oats  in  order  to  save  time.  It  is  unneces- 
sary to  sprout  oats  then  because  the  hens  have  range. 

The  mash  ration  fed  in  connection  with  the  grain,  is 
as  follows  : 

2  parts  bran 

2  parts  middlings 

2  parts  ground  oats,  oat  meal  or  rolled  oats 

1  part  gluten  meal 
^2  part  oil  meal 

2  parts  corn  meal 
1      part  fish  scraps 

%  part  best  beef  scraps 

%  part  chick  charcoal 

1/2  pound  salt  to  every  100  pounds  above. 

The  above  mash  is  kept  before  the  hens  all  the  time 

with  the  exception  of  when  they  are  molting.    "We  have 

fed  all  kinds  of  recipes,"  says  this  poultryman,  ''but 

this  is  the  one  we  have  worked  out  ourselves  and  it  is 


152  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

giving  us  good  satisfaction.  Some  mashes  contain  more 
protein  than  this,  and  others  less,  but  with  the  amount 
of  other  grains  fed  in  connection  with  this  mash  we  get 
a  very  nicely  balanced  ration." 

Another  commercial  poultryman  uses  this  ration: 

Dry  Mash  Scratch  Feed 

50  pounds  bran  30  pounds  cracked   corn 

10  pounds  ground  corn  30  pounds  feed  wheat 

5  pounds  cut  clover  30  pounds  clipped  oats 

10  pounds  meat  crisps       3%  pounds  kaffir  corn 

26  ounces  salt  3^  pounds  sunflower  seed 

10  pounds  shorts  3%  pounds  buckwheat 

5  pounds  ground  oats 

3  pounds  cut  alfalfa 
10  pounds  flaxseed 

The  ration  used  at  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Sta- 
tion is  more  uniform  in  the  amount  of  the  individual  in- 
gredients used  and  is  as  follows: 

Mash  Grain 

100  pounds  wheat  bran  100  pounds  cracked  corn 

100  pounds  corn  meal  100  pounds  wheat 

100  pounds  ground  oats  100  pounds  oats 
100  pounds  meat  scraps 

The  famous  Cornell  Laying  Ration,  a  little  more  com- 
plicated, however,  is  as  follows: 

Mash  Grain 

60  pounds  cornmeal  3  parts  wheat 

60  pounds  middlings  2  parts  corn 

50  pounds  meat   scraps         1  part  oats 
30  pounds  bran 
10  pounds  oil  meal 
10  pounds  alfalfa  meal 
1  pound  salt 


ilow  to  Feed  Poultry  of  All  Ages 


153 


This  wide  choice  of  a  laying  ration  may  be  confusing 
to  some  people  but  we  offer  the  choice  simply  because 
it  often  happens  that  certain  ingredients  in  a  ration  can- 
not easily  or  economically  be  procured  by  people  living 
in  given  localities.  Instead  of  adopting  the  common 
plan  of  omitting  that  ingredient  from  the  ration,  as  most 
people  do  where  they  have  only  one  formula  at  hand,  we 
consider  it  better  to  make  it  possible  for  one  in  such 
circumstances  to  adopt  another  entire  ration  better  fit- 
ting his  needs  and  possibilities,  as  offering  the  most  in 
ultimate  satisfaction. 

There  is  no  reason  why  every  farm  flock  should  not 
be  managed  under  one  of  the  above  rations.    They  will 


Fig.  53 — ^The  Importance  of  Plenty  of  Fresh  Water  for  Fowls  of  All  Ages 
Must   Not   Be   Overlooked. 


all  achieve  the  purpose  in  mind ;  namely,  make  the  pro- 
duction of  eggs  possible,  if  carefully  followed.  Of  all 
the  rations  recommended,  we  feel  that  the  New  Jersey 
ration  will  find  the  greatest  favor  among  farmers  be- 
cause of  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  mixed,  requiring 
equal  parts  of  all  ingredients  used  in  both  the  grain  and 


154  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

mash  mixtures.  It  is  also  composed  of  ingredients  com- 
monly found  or  obtainable  on  all  farms  with  the  excep- 
tion of  meat  scraps,  and  they  must  be  purchased  for  any 
ration  and  if  one  desires  to  secure  the  maximum  per- 
formance from  the  laying  flock.  Many  people  substi- 
tute tankage  for  the  meat  scrap  element  in  laying  ra- 
tions and  report  that  they  are  receiving  satisfactory 
results. 

Next  in  importance  we  would  place  Ration  No.  3  rec- 
ommended by  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  It  is 
extremely  simple  in  formula  and  should  be  easily  mixed 
on  any  farm ;  it  is  doubtful,  however,  if  it  will  be  as  en- 
tirely satisfactory  as  the  New  Jersey  rations.  In  fact, 
there  is  nothing  impractical  in  any  of  the  rations  rec- 
ommended. They  all  come  from  authoritative  sources 
and  are  based  upon  hard-headed  and  practical  experi- 
ence. 

In  addition,  there  are  two  important  considerations 
to  keep  in  mind  in  feeding  laying  hens.  First,  the 
supply  of  fresh  water  must  be  constant  at  all  times,  par- 
ticularly in  cold  weather.  Hens  denied  an  abundance 
of  water  will  not  lay  at  their  full  capacity.  The  second 
point  is  that  all  rations  must  be  supplemented  by  lib- 
eral feedings  of  sprouted  oats  at  noon,  or  other  green 
food. 

Feeding  the  Breeders 

The  point  of  foremost  consideration  in  feeding  the 
breeding  flock  is  to  secure  fertile  eggs.  While  you  wish 
a  goodly  supply  of  eggs  for  hatching  purposes  that  is 
not  the  point  of  first  consideration,  for  an  infertile  egg 
is  worthless  and  it  is  better  to  have  none  at  all  than 
one  that  will  not  produce  a  good,  strong  chick.  Your 
idea,  then,  is  to  feed  for  fertility,  if  feeding  has  any 
eifect  upon  fertility. 


How  to  Feed  Poultry  of  All  Ages  155 

In  other  words,  every  effort  at  artificial  stimulation 
for  egg  production  must  be  eliminated  when  handling 
the  breeding  flock.  Not  that  the  feeding  of  heavy  lay- 
ing rations  is  especially  conducive  to  weak  constitu- 
tional vigor  in  the  hens  as  layers,  but  because  any  stim- 
ulation on  the  reproductive  organs  has  a  very  marked 
effect  upon  the  fertility  and  hatchability  of  the  eggs  laid. 

First  and  foremost,  it  is  wise  to  cut  out  all  meat  ele- 
ments in  the  ration.  If  these  are  from  fresh  lean  meat 
or  composed  entirely  of  lean  meat  no  ill  effects  are 
likely  to  occur,  but  we  have  no  means  of  knowing  wheth- 
er this  is  true.  When  in  doubt  over  an  element  of  the 
ration  for  the  breeders,  cut  out  that  element. 

The  feeding  of  liberal  quantities  of  wheat  bran  and 
sprouted  oats  in  the  rations  will  entirely  replace  the 
meat  scraps,  tankage  or  green  cut  bone  that  you  are  in 
the  habit  of  feeding  the  laying  flock,  and  it  will  not 
have  a  disastrous  effect  upon  the  fertility  of  the  eggs. 

As  much  bulky  food  as  the  hens  can  be  induced  to 
eat  should  be  fed  as  this  tends  to  increase  fertility  and 
hatchability  of  eggs — such  feeds  as  wheat  bran,  alfalfa 
meal,  sprouted  oats,  cut  clover,  etc. 

A  good  ration  for  breeders  is  equal  parts  wheat, 
cracked  corn  and  oats  for  the  scratch  grain  and  for  the 
mash  equal  parts  bran,  ground  oats,  cornmeal  and  one- 
half  the  mixture  alfalfa  meal,  supplemented  by  sprouted 
oats  at  noon.  Also  plenty  of  water,  grit,  shell  and  char- 
coal. 


CHAPTER  X. 
Developing  the  Young  Stock  Properly 


Importance  of  Systematic  Care — Value  and  Kinds  of  Range 
— Rations  and  Methods 

We  have  already  made  the  remark  that  regularity  in 
the  feeding  and  care  of  the  young  stock  is  fully  as  im- 
portant as  the  housing  methods  followed  and  the  rations 
fed.  We  cannot  state  this  conclusion  too  forcibly.  Of 
course  it  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  an  over-emphasis  but  un- 
less it  is  given  due  weight  and  consideration  by  the  farm- 
er or  poultryman,  it  is  not  an  over-emphasis. 

We  all  know  the  wonderful  results  that  come  from  reg- 
ularity in  our  own  lives.  If  we  go  to  bed  at  a  certain 
hour  each  evening,  arise  at  a  certain  hour,  eat  whole- 
some food  and  indulge  in  exercise  or  labor  regularly 
a  certain  number  of  hours  each  day,  we  soon  find  our 
regular  habits  making  it  possible  for  us  not  only  to 
maintain  our  own  but  to  gain  weight.  Every  young 
man  who  came  under  military  training  will  testify  to 
the  fact  that  he  gained  weight  and  strength  while  in 
the  service,  unless  disease  or  sickness  overtook  him, 
and  if  he  will  analyze  the  conditions  there  seems  to 
\)e  only  two  outstanding  facts  responsible  for  the  bene- 
fits he  derived:  regular  habits  and  systematic  work  or 
exercise.  The  food  was  but  slightly  different  from 
what  he  had  been  accustomed  to  in  civilian  life,  espe- 
cially if  he  came  from  the  farm.  It  was  the  regular 
hours  and  the  systematic  work  that  made  the  great  dif- 
ference in  his  physical  make-up. 


158 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


The  samfe  consideration  holds  true  in  the  proper 
development  of  the  young  stock.  Regularity  in  feed- 
ing and  care,  having  every  detail  of  these  absolutely  cor- 
rect, will  do  more  to  insure  steady  development  than 
any  ration  that  can  be  fed.  That  is  to  say  that  no  mat- 
ter how  good  the  ration  may  be,  if  regular  and  sys- 
tematic attention  is  lacking,  the  gains  deserved  from 
the  ration  will  not  be  obtained. 

There  should  be  a  regular  time  for  every  duty  in 
connection  with  the  care  of  the  poultry  and  there  is 
no  reason  why  that  time  should  be  allowed  to  vary  one 


Fig.    54 — Colony   Houses   W'th   Good   Range,    Proper  Feeding  and   Regular 
Care  Develop  Young  Stock  at  the  Least   Coat. 


minute  in  time  from  day  to  day.  If  such  a  schedule 
is  followed  from  the  time  the  baby  chicks  are  given 
their  first  feeding  until  they  are  matured,  you  will  bring 
the  young  pullets  forward  without  a  single  hitch,  they 
will  develop  rapidly  into  the  sort  of  pullets  necessary 
for  high  egg  records  and  the  cost  of  their  production 
will  generally  be  from  one-third  to  one-half  less  than 


Developing  the  Young  Stock  Properly  159 

that  obtaining  where   they   are   given   indifferent   and 
haphazard  attention. 

If  there  is  one  outstanding  detail  noticeable  in  visit- 
ing the  farms  and  plants  of  those  farmers  and  poultry- 
men  who  are  making  the  best  successes  it  is  that  every 
detail  is  given  proper  attention  and  that  everything  is 
done  on  an  absolute  schedule,  nothing  being  allowed  to 
upset  or  delay  the  work  of  any  part  of  the  day.  And 
that  is  what  was  meant  when  it  was  written  that  "eter- 
nal vigilance  is  the  price  of  success." 

Any  man,  woman  or  child  has  sufficient  ability  to 
make  a  success  of  poultry  production  provided  they 
have  the  will  power  to  do  the  right  thing  as  common 
sense  reveals  it  to  them  at  the  right  time.  If  one  has 
a  tendency  to  be  careless,  to  put  things  off,  to  slide  out 
of  doing  a  disagreeable  task  as  long  as  possible,  then 
there  is  slight  chance  that  they  will  succeed  in  poultry 
production. 

The  hardest  job  in  the  whole  poultry  yard  is  to  be  able 
to  develop  a  crop  of  young  pullets  properly  each  sea- 
son to  go  into  the  laying  houses.  Many  a  man  who  can 
feed  and  handle  the  layers  successfully  falls  down  on 
this  one  point  and  unless  one  can  make  good  on  it, 
poultry  keeping  will  not  prove  profitable.  For  one 
cannot  stay  in  the  business  unless  one  can  bring  on  a 
new  crop  of  pullets  year  after  year  to  take  the  place  of 
those  who  have  served  their  period  of  usefulness. 

And  regularity — bringing  the  young  pullets  forward 
with  a  rush  from  the  day  they  are  hatched  and  without 
a  break — is  the  secret  of  economical  and  unerring  pul- 
let production.  Just  keep  that  in  mind  as  one  of  the 
outstanding  "secrets"  of  successful  poultry  work. 


160  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

Value  and  Kinds  of  Range 

The  most  economical  way  in  which  to  handle  young 
stock  is  to  afford  them  every  advantage  on  range.  This 
means  that  the  colony  system  or  some  adaptation  of  it 
will  be  necessary.  "We  have  already  indicated  several 
types  of  desirable  colony  coops  and  how  to  construct 
them — types  practical  and  desirable  for  general  farm 
use. 

The  value  of  range  for  the  young  stock  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. It  not  only  makes  for  economy  in  the  feed- 
ing, but  it  promotes  the  most  rapid  growth  and  develops 
stock  strong  in  constitutional  vigor  and  stamina.  And 
strong,  sturdy,  upstanding  fowls  are  necessary  in  order 
to  stand  up  under  the  strain  of  heavy  egg  production. 

Fowls  developed  on  good  range  under  the  colony 
house  system  can  be  developed  at  a  much  more  economi- 
cal figure  than  under  any  other  method.  Tests  at  one 
experiment  station  during  the  peak  of  high  prices 
brought  out  the  fact  that  range-raised  Leghorn  pullets 
could  be  matured  for  an  average  cost  slightly  in  excess 
of  38  cents  each.  Under  wise  management  and  proper 
conditions,  this  figure  should  be  lowered  several  cents 
at  the  present  time. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  range  available  to  the 
farmer  for  his  young  stock.  The  logical  place  to  raise 
young  stock  is  generally  in  the  farm  orchard.  There  they 
will  have  the  advantage  of  shade  and  will  not  be  mo- 
lested by  other  farm  work.  And  the  advantage  of  mak- 
ing the  land  yield  a  double  production  is  also  had. 
Chickens  will  not  injure  the  productiveness  of  an 
orchard  as  many  other  farm  animals  will,  but  stand 
to  improve  that  production  not  only  by  the  in- 
creased fertility  given  the  soil  through  their  droppings 
but  because  they  are  the  natural  enemies  of  the  enemies 
of  the  orchard  such  as  bugs,  worms  and  slugs. 


Developing  the  Young  Stock  Properly 


161 


The  orchard  has  the  further  advantage  of  generally 
being  close  to  the  house  where  regular  and  prompt  care 
and  feeding  will  be  possible.  This  is  a  point  that 
should  not  be  overlooked  for  in  bad  weather  the  ten- 
dency to  be  irregular  in  feeding  and  care  is  more  pro- 
nounced if  the  colony  coops  are  far  removed  from  the 
main  buildings. 

The  next  most  desirable  range  for  the  young  stock  is 
in  growing  corn  field.  This  is  perhaps  the  most  de- 
sirable place  of  all  for  the  young  stock  were  it  not  for  the 
fact  that  the  corn  fields  are  generally  some  distance  from 
the  main  buildings  and  the  running  back  and  forth  to 
take  care  of  the  stock  consumes  more  time,  especially 


Fig.   55 — An  Economical  Roosting  Coop  for  Young  Stock  on  Range.     The 
Ventilation  Is   Perfect  in  This   Coop. 


during  the  busy  •  season.  However,  where  the  details 
are  correctly  organiised  and  the  hopper  system  of  feed- 
ing is  followed,  many  farmers  are  able  to  make  one  visit 
per  day  suffice.  Of  course,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the 
rounds  at  night  and  see  that  everything  is  going  all 
right  in  order  to  anticipate  and  remedy  trouble  before 
it  has  a  chance  to  make  inroads  on  the  young  flock. 


162  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

The  best  method  is  to  string  the  colony  houses  along 
the  fence  row  and  facing  the  corn  field.  Allow  plenty  of 
space  between  the  coops  and  the  chicks  will  learn  which 
coop  is  their  own  and  will  not  be  so  likely  to  flock  into 
one  coop.  They  will  range  through  the  corn  field,  where 
the  growing  corn  provides  shade  and  will  harvest  a  large 
crop  of  bugs  and  worms,  which  will  be  highly  desirable 
and  cut  down  the  amount  of  feed  necessary.  The  cover 
provided  by  the  corn  will  tend  to  protect  and  shield  them 
from  hawks. 

Rations  and  Methods 

While  a  number  of  good  rations  have  been  presented 
in  the  Chapter  on  Feeding,  constant  experience  will  soon 
reveal  to  you  the  ration  best  suited  for  your  needs. 
While  the  rations  play  a  tremendous  part  in  the  proper 
development  of  young  stock  and  must  not  be  minimized, 
we  want  to  lay  particular  stress  at  this  time  upon  the 
methods  of  care  given  the  young  chicks. 

One  poultryman  said  to  me  not  long  ago :  ' '  There  are 
millions  of  chicks  lost  every  year  that  should  with  the 
proper  sort  of  care  have  lived  and  produced  a  profit. 
When  you  consider  what  it  means  from  a  money  stand- 
point for  every  chick  that  is  lost,  the  amount  staggers 
you.  I  figure  that  a  chick  coming  from  even  ordinary 
stock  that  dies  represents  a  loss  to  me  in  money  of  at 
least  50  cents." 

The  greatest  loss  in  chicks  unquestionably  comes  from 
overcrowding  and  the  evils  attendant  thereon.  Over- 
crowding results  in  dead  and  stunted  chicks  and  it  is  the 
inevitable  mistake  made  by  the  beginner.  It  takes  some 
people  several  years  to  learn  that  it  is  not  numbers  that 
counts  for  the  most  profit  in  the  poultry  business  but 
carefully  developed  and  properly  handled  individuals. 
As  soon  as  one  loses  sight  of  the  importance  of  the  in- 


Developing  the  Young  Stock  Properly  163 

dividual  and  commences  to  think  in  terms  of  numbers, 
unless  he  has  the  solid  rock  of  practical  experience  be- 
hind him,  then  he  is  inviting  trouble. 

Every  colony  house  should  be  made  to  support  only 
the  number  of  chicks  it  can  comfortably  handle.  If 
there  is  any  doubt  as  to  whether  they  are  overcrowded 
or  not  the  best  plan  is  to  reduce  the  number  of  chicks 
in  order  to  be  sure.  It  will  make  money  for  you  in  the 
long  run. 

Constant  visits  must  be  made  to  the  colony  coops  dur- 
ing the  growing  season  in  order  to  be  sure  that  the  chicks 


■ 

jw^JH 

w 

3^^ 

m^^^^lt^ 

Fig.  56 — A  Colony  Coop  in  the  Orchard  Is  an  Ideal  Place  to  Mature  Young 
Stock. 

are  coming  along  all  right.  One  point  which  must 
be  kept  in  mind  is  to  prevent  overheating  or  chill- 
ing, as  the  case  may  be.  The  square  corners  of  the  coops 
should  be  rounded  out  every  day  with  litter  in  order  to 


164  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

make  it  impossible  for  the  chicks  to  pile  up  and  smother 
each  other.  Those  that  do  not  die  as  a  result  of  this 
piling  up  are  very  apt  to  lose  their  feathers  through 
sweating,  and  this  is  the  first  step  towards  a  stunted 
chick. 

Many  poultrymen  use  all  kinds  of  devices  to  prevent 
the  chicks  getting  into  the  corners  and  piling  up.  If 
there  are  any  nest  boxes  in  the  colony  coops  they  must 
be  covered  up  so  the  chicks  cannot  get  into  them  and 
pile  up.  Pieces  of  lumber  can  be  nailed  together  in 
such  a  way  as  to  round  out  the  corners  and  get  away 
from  this  evil.  It  is  one  of  the  sure  sources  of  losses 
in  growing  stock  if  the  detail  is  not  taken  care  of  and 
it  comes  to  the  veteran  as  well  as  the  beginner. 

Keep  the  ventilating  devices  on  the  colony  coops  in 
working  order  during  the  summer.  It  should  be  possible 
to  secure  fresh  air  from  any  direction  in  the  colony 
coops.  This  is  highly  important  for  the  continual  and 
uninterrupted  development  of  the  young  stock  during 
hot  weather. 

In  other  words,  the  farmer  or  poultryman  must  keep 
a  constant  eye  on  the  young  stock  and  see  that  they  are 
given  every  advantage  possible  to  promote  rapid  and 
economical  growth.  The  droppings  must  be  cleaned  up 
regularly  and  the  houses  sprayed  with  disinfectants. 
The  chicks  must  be  kept  comfortable  at  all  times  and 
be  supplied  with  a  good  ration  regularly  fed.  That 
is  about  all  that  is  necessary.  It  is  in  the  details  that 
the  rub  comes. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
Culling  Farm  Poultry  for  Any  Purpose 


Culling  Continually  Practiced — Purpose  of  Culling — Cull- 
ing Young  Stock — Fall  Culling  of  Pullets — Gulling  the 
Layers — External   Characteristics   op   Good   Layers 

Culling  is  not  a  seasonal  work  in  the  poultry  yard  as 
many  people  are  likely  to  assume  from  the  annual  fall 
culling  demonstrations  staged  by  county  agents  and  ex- 
tension workers.  It  is  a  process  that  should  be  going 
on  all  the  time  if  the  maximum  results  are  to  be  ex- 
pected from  the  fowls,  regardless  of  their  age. 

Nature  has  a  habit  of  penalizing  the  poultryman  and 
carrying  on  a  culling  work  all  her  own,  if  he  fails  to  do 
the  proper  things  at  the  right  time.  And  Nature  is 
much  more  severe  in  her  methods  than  is  necessary, 
hence  it  is  wise  to  pay  the  voluntary  tax  of  doing  the 
work  at  the  right  time  before  Nature  assesses  the  invol- 
untary tax  and  disease  breaks  out  in  the  flock. 

It  is  wise  to  start  on  the  first  day  and  destroy  all 
weaklings,  all  chicks  with  crooked  toes,  and  to  keep,  up  a 
ruthless  program  of  culling  until  the  fowls  are  finally 
disposed  of.  It  increases  the  individual  returns  won 
from  each  member  of  the  flock  and  it  reduces  the  chance 
of  loss  through  outbreaks  of  disease.  Disease  generally 
finds  its  surest  stepping  stone  to  the  rest  of  the  flock 
through  the  weaklings  and  drones. 

From  an  economic  standpoint  the  continual  plan  of 
culling  is  also  desirable  because  it  cuts  the  expense  of 


166 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


feeding  and  housing  to  a  minimum  by  saving  that  con- 
sumed by  those  individuals  which  are  not  returning,  and 
will  not  return,  any  income. 

While  this  continual  process  of  culling  is  going  on, 
through  the  simple  plan  of  watching  the  fowls  and  elim- 
inating the  undesirables  as  fast  as  noted,  there  are  also 
times  when  it  is  profitable  to  go  through  the  whole  flock 
and  subject  it  to  rigid  culling  tests.  And  certain  sea- 
sons are  more  advantageous  for  this  work  than  others. 


Pig.  57 — High-producing  Leghorns,  having  record  of  288  and  269  eggs, 
^pectively,    showing    bodily    capacity    and    long    backs    necessary    in    good 


respectively 
layers. 


Purposes  of  Culling 

The  primary  purpose  of  culling  is  to  discover  the 
drones  in  the  flock,  or  those  unlikely  to  earn  a  profit,  as 
quickly  as  possible.  The  culls  create  a  tiny  leak  in  the 
poultry  business  dyke  which  sooner  or  later  will  under- 
mine and  destroy  the  whole  structure  as  a  business  unit 
unless  these  heroic  measures  are  adopted  in  self -protec- 
tion. 


Culling  Farm  Poultry  for  Any  Purpose        167 

Culling  is  not  an  intricate  or  highly  specialized  work. 
Any  person  of  average  intelligence  can  learn  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  work  in  a  few  hours  and  cull  to  a  fair  per- 
centage of  accuracy.  With  practice  comes  confidence 
and  the  knowledge  that  will  soon  make  anyone  as  ex- 
pert a  culler  as  the  highly  paid  experts  who  devote  most 
of  their  time  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  to  this  work. 

We  do  not  always  cull  to  the  same  end,  and  the  farmer 
should  keep  in  mind  at  all  times  what  he  is  trying  to  do 
when  he  commences  to  cull.  The  fancier  will  term  all 
fowls  that  do  not  measure  up  to  his  individual  require- 
ments, as  he  interprets  the  Standard  of  Perfection,  culls. 
Oftentimes  the  fancier  will  throw  out  the  fowl  having 
the  most  desirable  utility  or  egg-laying  ability.  In  fact, 
all  of  the  English  Leghorns,  without  exception,  would 
be  culls  under  the  fancier's  way  of  looking  at  things. 

To  the  farmer  desiring  high  egg-laying  ability,  how- 
ever, the  exact  reverse  would  probably  be  true.  To  him 
the  fine  looking  birds  might  be  considered  as  culls.  This 
all  goes  to  prove  that  any  fowl  which  does  not  measure 
up  to  the  particular  requirements  we  have  in  mind,  are 
culls,  and  they  do  not  necessarily  mean  stunted,  runty, 
poorly-developed  fowls.  A  stalk  of  corn  in  a  flower  bed 
is  a  "weed"  and  it  is  on  the  same  general  theory  that 
poultry  culling  is  done. 

It  is  necessary  to  know  at  all  times  the  goal  in  mind 
and  to  work  untiringly  to  that  end.  Then  and  then  only 
will  culling  play  the  important  part  in  your  work  that 
it  should. 

Culling  Young  Stock 

Culling  young  stock,  and  by  that  we  mean  the  stock 
which  has  not  reached  maturity,  is  reduced  to  a 
few  simple  rules  easily  understood  by  all  and  easily  ap- 
plied. 


168  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

The  very  first  standard  by  which  the  growing  stock 
can  be  culled  is  by  their  general  development  as  com- 
pared with  other  individuals  in  the  flock.  Those  who 
lag  behind  and  seem  to  be  making  no  progress  should  be 
taken  out  of  the  flock,  penned  up  and  fattened,  if  pos- 
sible, and  sent  to  market.  All  chicks  that  do  not  develop 
uniformly  with  the  average  in  the  flock  should  be  penned 
up  and  either  fattened  or  specially  fed  so  that  they  can 
have  a  chance  to  make  up  the  lost  ground,  if  it  seems  that 
there  is  a  chance  for  them  growing  into  serviceable  in- 
dividuals. 

A  common  case  is  where  some  of  the  chicks  seem  un- 
able to  develop  and  grow  feathers  along  with  the  rest  of 
the  flock.  These  eases,  as  soon  as  they  are  noted,  should 
be  taken  in  hand,  rather  than  allowing  them  to  run  loose 
all  summer  without  making  any  further  progress.  Some- 
times it  is  possible  to  get  the  feathers  started  by  penning 
them  up  and  feeding  liberally  on  wheat  bran,  wheat  mid* 
dlings  and  cracked  wheat.  If  you  do  not  note  any  prog- 
ress in  two  or  three  weeks  it  is  best  to  use  other  methods 
in  disposing  of  them,  as  the  chances  are  that  they  will 
never  develop  feathers  properly.  But  a  great  number 
of  these-  -cases  can  be  corrected  if  taken  in  hand  soon 
enough. 

There  is  always  a  number  of  deformed  or  odd  chicks 
in  almost  every  flock  of  youngsters.  The  first  step  in 
culling  is  to  weed  out  these  chicks  and  either  kill  them 
or  dispose  of  them  in  some  manner.  They  are  of  no 
economic  advantage  and  stand  a  chance  of  being  a  seri- 
ous detriment  to  the  success  of  the  flock. 

The  next  step  to  keep  in  mind  is  to  separate  the  young 
cockerels  from  the  flock  as  soon  as  they  can  be  distin- 
guished, place  them  in  a  separate  pen  and  feed  them  a 
fattening  ration  as  outlined  in  the  chapter  on  feeding 
so  that  they  can  be  gotten  to  market  with  the  least  pos- 


Culling  Farm  Poultry  for  Any  Purpose         169 

sible  delay.  The  huskiest  and  most  promising  of  these 
young  cockerels  may  be  desired  for  breeding  purposes, 
in  which  event  they  should  be  placed  in  a  still  different 
pen  and  fed  to  develop  strong,  sturdy  muscular  frames. 

The  sooner  this  is  done  the  greater  the  profit  from 
those  that  go  to  market  and  the  better  the  chance  for 
the  pullets  retained  in  the  original  flock.  Every  day 
of  delay  in  getting  the  culls  to  market  takes  just  that 
much  profit  out  of  the  pocket  of  the  poultryman  and 
adds  that  much  to  the  cost  of  the  pullets  matured.  We 
might  say  in  this  connection  that  the  correct  way  to  fig- 
ure the  net  cost  of  the  pullets  matured  in  each  lot  is  to 
deduct  from  the  gross  cost  the  returns  received  from 
the  marketing  of  the  cockerels  weeded  out. 

In  culling  young  stock,  then,  adopt  these  general 
plans:  First,  cull  out  the  undesirables,  the  weaklings, 
the  runts  and  stunted  chicks.  Second,  cull  the  cockerels 
as  rapidly  as  possible  in  order  that  the  maximum  return 
may  be  secured  from  them  for  broiler  purposes. 

Fall  Culling  of  Pullets 

The  best  time  for  a  general  culling  of  the  young  pul- 
lets is  in  the  fall  just  before  they  are  taken  in  from  the 
range  and  placed  in  the  laying  houses.  Most  people  de- 
lay this  work  until  the  frosty  nights  come  along  in  Oc- 
tober, but  many  farmers  in  the  Middle  West  who  have 
given  the  matter  attention  state  that  it  is  better  to  get 
the  pullets  in  by  the  middle  of  September.  Whatever 
the  exact  time  of  making  the  move,  to  be  determined 
largely  by  the  locality  and  the  season,  the  whole  flock 
should  be  carefully  gone  over  and  the  undesirables 
culled  out. 

The  first  consideration  that  will  naturally  be  consid- 
ered as  the  individual  fowls  are  taken  up  and  examined 


170  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

will  be  the  weight  and  development  they  have  attained. 
Those  seeming  to  be  behind  the  rest  in  size  and  flesh  will 
naturally  be  separated  from  the  main  flock.  They  will 
not  commence  to  lay  as  a  rule  as  soon  as  the  rest  and 
should  be  placed  to  themselves  where  they  can  be  given 
a  special  feeding  in  an  effort  to  push  their  development 
before  cold  weather  really  sets  in. 

It  is  really  regrettable  that  little  work  has  been  done 
by  the  investigators  in  learning  how  to  cull  pullets 
at  the  start  of  the  laying  season  in  order  to  determine 
which  ones  are  going  to  be  the  best  layers.  Practically 
everything  that  has  been  done  has  been  done  along  the 
line  of  determining  the  layer  at  the  end  of  the  first  year, 
or  at  least  after  the  flock  has  been  producing  eggs  for 
several  months.  It  stands  to  reason  that  the  most  valu- 
able time  at  which  to  have  a  clear  index  to  the  ability  of 
the  pullets  to  go  into  the  flock  would  be  at  the  start  of 
the  season  before  the  drones  have  had  an  opportunity  to 
consume  their  portion  of  the  ration  and  the  attendant's 
time,  during  which  period  they  are  contributing  nothing 
towards  the  income. 

There  are  some  general  characteristics,  however,  by 
which  the  culler  can  be  guided  in  the  early  fall  work 
which  will  serve  to  keep  the  amount  of  cull  pullets 
down  to  a  minimum.  One  or  two  investigators  have 
commenced  to  devote  attention  to  this  subject.  We 
quote  from  a  bulletin  recently  issued  by  the  Michigan 
Agricultural  College: 

"Egg  type  in  poultry  is  more  reliably  indicated  by 
the  head  than  any  other  single  part  of  the  body.  The 
head  reveals  health,  constitutional  vigor,  age,  refine- 
ment, coarseness,  and  masculinity.  Lady  Activity  (rec- 
ord 253  eggs  in  365  days)  was  selected  as  the  record  hen 
in  the  college  flock  in  1916  just  as  she  began  to  lay, 


Culling  Farm  Poultry  for  Anij  Purpose         171 

selection  being  based  chiefly  on  refinement  of  head.  Care 
and  judgment  must  be  exercised,  however,  or  refinement 
of  head  will  lead  to  the  selection  of  individuals  that  are 
not  sufficiently  robust  to  stand  up  under  the  continuous 
r;train  of  heavy  egg  production.  Small  heads  and  ex- 
treme fineness  of  features  generally  indicate  a  propen- 
sity for  broodiness. 

''Early  maturity  also  is  correlated  with -heavy  egg 
production.  The  pullet  that  feathers  earliest  on  the 
back  has,  in  nearly  every  case,  made  the  highest  yearly 
records.  Early  feathering  over  the  back  is  an  indication 
of  both  early  maturity  and  constitutional  vigor.  Chicks 
always  feather  in  the  following  definite  order:  wings, 
tail,  neck,  breast,  fluff  and  back.  Chicks  of  the  heavy 
breeds,  should  be  feathered  over  the  back  at  seven  weeks 
of  age.  Leghorns  or  lighter  breeds,  a  week  earlier.  Pref- 
erence should  also  be  given  to  close,  tight  feathers,  along 
with  early  feathering." 

Earlier  maturity  is  one  of  the  surest  tests  we  now 
have  as  to  the  probable  value  as  layers  of  the  pullets.  It 
is  almost  a  sure  indication  that  the  pullet  which  matures 
during  a  period  ranging  from  five  to  seven  months,  de- 
pending upon  the  breed,  is  going  to  be  the  best  layer. 
On  the  other  hand,  those  that  linger  for  several  weeks 
seemingly  making  no  progress  are  not  so  likely  to  de- 
velop into  the  best  producers. 

This,  however,  must  be  tempered  by  the  time  when 
the  chicks  were  hatched  and  due  reference  given  to  the 
possibility  of  the  young  pullets  undergoing  a  fall  molt. 
If  Leghorn  pullets,  for  instance,  are  hatched  in  Feb- 
ruary or  March  they  will  nearly  always  commence  to 
lay  in  midsummer  and  then  undergo  a  molt  during  the 
early  fall  along  with  the  other  hens.  This  causes  them 
to  stop  laying  and  they  seldom  get  back  to  producing 
eggs  before  the  middle  of  the  winter.    This  means  that 


172 


The  Modern  t\ 


Hi 


the  poultryman  is  going  to  have  to  know  the  exact  time 
in  which  to  hatch  his  pullets  if  he  wants  to  mature  them 
at  a  time  so  that  there  is  slight  danger  of  them  going 
through  this  annoying  molt.  April  hatched  Leghorn 
pullets  seldom,  if  ever,  go  through  this  molt  and  gener- 
ally go  a  year  and 
a  half  before  molt- 
ing. The  same 
thing  applies  to 
pullets  of  the  larg- 
er breeds,  if  hatch- 
ed too  soon. 

All  of  the  tests 
applied  to  hens 
that  have  been  lay- 
ing are  not  of 
value  in  culling  the 
pullets.  As  a  rule  these  tests  are  of  slight  value  with 
the  exception  of  the  pelvic  bone  tests  to  indicate  prob- 
able capacity.  The  pigmentation  tests  or  tests  by  noting 
the  presence  or  absence  of  the  yellow  coloring  matter, 
are  of  no  value  whatever  in  testing  out  pullets  that  have 
not  yet  commenced  to  lay. 


Pig.    58 — Showing    Desirable    Head    on    Good 
Layer. 


Culling  the  Layers 


What  is  the  good  type  and  how  can  we  pick  out  the 
layers  in  our  flock?  The  characteristics  of  good  layers 
are  external  as  well  as  internal — so  much  so  that  one  can 
oftentimes  spot  the  good  layer  on  sight  without  having 
to  handle  the  birds.  The  first  thing  one  does  when  look- 
ing at  a  herd  of  dairy  cattle  is  to  look  at  the  "business 
end"  of  the  animals,  if  speculating  on  whether  or  not 
they  are  good  producers.  Dairy  cows  are  judged  largely 
for  their  capacity  or  heavy  milk  flow.    The  same  holds 


CuUhiy  Farm  Poultry  for  Any  Purpose         173 


true  in  the  case  of  the  heavy-laying  hen.  She  must  have 
proper  vent  capacity  just  as  the  dairy  animal  must  have 
proper  udder  development  for  heavy  production. 

Wide  depth  and  capacity  in  the  abdominal  region  is  a 
strong  indication  of  the  heavy  layer  in  the  case  of  hens. 
She  conforms,  in  a  general  way,  to  the  outline  found  in 
the  high-producing  animal.  Rather  than  being  a  fowl  of 
curves,  she  is  a  fowl  of  triangles.  If  a  hen  lacks  appear- 
ance of  great  capacity  or  depth  of  keel  before  one  takes 
her  in  hand  to  examine,  the  chances  are  very  strong 
against  her  being  a 
good  layer.  The 
stunted  hen,  the 
poorly  matured 
pullet,  and  the  non- 
producer  always 
give  strong  indica- 
tions lacking  in 
this  particular  be- 
fore they  are  ever 
examined  in  detail. 

On  the  other  hand,  hens  sloppy  in  appearance  and 
shape  seldom  prove  to  be  good  layers.  This  does  not  nec- 
essarily mean  the  hen  that  is  ragged  in  feathers,  but  with 
the  hen  having  a  baggy  vent  it  is  generally  true.  Ab- 
dominal capacity  is  the  first  general  characteristic  to 
examine  in  cuUmg  the  flock. 

Looseness  and  pliability  of  the  skin  is  a  better  indica- 
tion of  the  healthy  layer  when  found  around  the  vent, 
than  a  thick,  tough  skin.  The  vent  should  be  moist 
rather  than  dry,  and  a  slight  pressure  should  evidence 
this  in  the  hen  that  is  a  good  layer. 

The  head  points  aire  another  very  good  indication  of 
the  laying  ability  of  your  hens.     The  hen  with  a  pale, 


Fig.    59 — The    Small,    Snaky    Head    on 
sirable   Layers. 


174  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

dry,  waxy  comb  and  wattles,  with  thin  face,  pale  beak, 
eye  rings  and  ear  lobes,  with  a  bright  round  eye,  is  gen- 
erally rated  as  a  good  layer.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
poor  layer  ordinarily  shows  small,  hard,  dry  combs  ancl 
wattles,  with  a  fat  face,  yellow  beak,  eye  rings  and  ear 
lobe's;  the  ear  lobes  are  often  wrinkled,  and  she  has  a 
pale,  snaky  eye.  The  hen  with  the  small,  snaky  head, 
in  general,  or  the  full,  beefy  neck,  should  be  discarded 
as  undesirable. 

The  pigmentation  test  is  another  very  good  external 
test  to  use  in  culling  the  flock.  We  used  to  think  that 
the  hens  with  the  nice,  bright  shanks  and  yellow  beaks 
were  the  most  desirable  to  keep  and  the  others  were 
gathered  up  and  sent  off  to  market.  Investigations  the 
past  few  years  have  demonstrated  the  fact  that  the  hen 
with  the  yellow  rings  and  beak  is,  in  fact,  a  mediocre 
layer  and  not  paying  for  her  board.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  secretion  of  the  yellow  pigment  in  the 
shanks,  big  circles  around  the  eyes  and  skin  has  a  direct 
relation  to  the  egg-laying  ability  of  the  hen.  Nature 
secretes  the  yellow  pigment  in  the  places  mentioned  for 
a  definite  purpose,  and  as  the  hen  lays  her  clutch  of  eggs 
this  secretion  is  drawn  upon  for  coloring  matter  in  the 
yolks,  and  at  the  height  of  the  laying  season  it  is  con- 
sumed more  rapidly  than  it  is  secreted.  This  results  in 
the  distinct  bleaching  of  the  birds  so  that  at  the  end  of 
the  laying  season  the  shanks  of  the  heavy  layer  will,  in 
fact,  be  practically  white  in  color.  The  poor  layer,  not 
drawing  upon  the  secretions  of  pigment,  retains  the  nat- 
ural bright  luster  in  her  shanks  and  the  other  points  of 
secretion  and  is  naturally  the  most  "healthy"  looking 
hen  in  the  flock. 

Investigations  in  regard  to  the  pigmentation  test  have 
developed  to  such  a  point  that  before  long  the  experi- 
ment stations  will  be  prepared  to  announce  definitely 


Culling  Farm  Poultrij  for  Any  Purpose         175 

the  exact  number  of  days  of  laying  required  to  consume 
the  pigment  stored  in  any  one  part  of  the  body  of  the 
fowl.  When  this  matter  is  finally  determined  definitely 
it  will  be  possible  for  the  farmer  to  select  a  hen  and  tell 
at  once  just  how  many  eggs  she  has  laid  that  year.  In 
the  meantime  the  indications  obviously  offered  by  the 
pigmentation  test  should  not  be  overlooked,  because  they 
are  one  of  the  surest  indexes  the  farmer  can  use  in 
drafting  the  layers. 

Another  indication  of  the  good  layer  is  that  of  tem- 
perament. One  can  seldom  fail  on  this  test  if  one  has 
the  time  and  desire  to  watch  the  hens  closely.  The  good 
layer  is  always  a  hustler  and  of  a  nervous  temperament. 
There  is  no  indication  of  sluggishness  in  her  make-up. 
She  is  ever  busy,  has  a  good  appetite,  and  continually  on 
the  move.  On  the  other  hand,  the  poor  layer  is  the  sort 
of  hen  you  find  on  the  roost  until  noon,  or  standing  on 
the  sunny  side  of  a  building  in  spring,  or  in  some  shady 
spot  during  the  hot  days  of  summer.  At  times  she  ap- 
pears to  have  no  appetite  at  all.  She  is  baggy,  slovenly 
in  appearance,  and  has  nothing  of  the  nervous  tempera- 
ment found  in  the  busy,  alert  hen.  Discard  the  lazy 
hen,  for  there  is  nothing  to  lose  in  sending  her  off  to 
market. 

The  molting  period  is  the  best  time  in  which  to  cull 
the  laying  hens,  for  the  reason  that  it  has  a  very  strong 
influence  upon  the  laying  record  of  each  individual.  We 
used  to  think  that  the  early  molters  were  the  heavy  lay- 
ers for  the  reason  that  they  would  be  through  molting 
in  time  to  resume  laying  in  the  fall.  This  idea,  however, 
has  been  proved  largely  erroneous.  The  poor  layer  al- 
ways starts  to  molt  while  stopping  production  through 
the  fall  months,  and  very  seldom  laying  until  the  natural 
period  returns  in  the  spring.  The  heavy  layer,  on  the 
other  hand,  if  she  molts  at  all,  goes  through  very  slow 


176 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


molt  during  the  fall,  laying  right  up  until  cold  weather 
in  many  cases,  sometimes  being  pushed  to  grow  a  new 
coat  of  feathers  before  severe  weather  sets  in.  This  hen 
is  manifestly  the  most  profitable  to  the  farmer,  because 
she  keeps  up  her  production  throughout  the  late  summer 
and  early  fall,  not  only  paying  her  way,  but  giving  the 
farmer  the  advantage  of  the  higher  prices  obtained  for 
her  eggs  in  the  early  fall  months.  The  cold  weather 
naturally  hastens  the  production  of  a  new  coat  of  feath- 


Pig.   60 — Showing  Desirable  Abdominal  Capacity  for  a  Heavy  Layer 


ers,  and  you  will  find  the  late  molter  back  to  laying  from 
six  weeks  to  two  months  in  many  cases.  All  hens  that 
are  not  molting  in  July,  August,  and  in  some  instances, 
September,  should  be  examined  with  a  great  deal  of 
care.  The  hens  molting  in  the  first  two  months  can  be 
safely  discarded  as  unprofitable. 

Hens  that  are  well  bleached,  that  have  the  proper  head 
points,  with  good  color  and  loose,  pliable  skin  around  the 


Culling  Farm  Poultry  for  Any  Purpose        177 

vent,  are,  as  a  general  rule,  to  be  selected  as  the  heus  to 
be  retained  in  the  laying  flock.  All  others  should  be 
discarded  as  unprofitable,  and  sent  to  market. 

External  Characteristics  of  Good  Layers 

It  is  in  the  examination  of  the  laying  hens  individually 
that  the  greatest  degree  of  success  comes  in  culling  the 
flock,  because  it  renders  possible  a  careful  and  minute 
examination  of  each  section  of  the  hens,  which  is  impos- 
sible where  only  general  type  characteristics  are  consid- 
ered. 

Culling  is  down  to  the  point  now  where  no  one  need 
fear  for  results  after  a  careful  individual  examination 
lias  been  made.  It  is  now  possible  to  tell  almost  to  the 
egg  laid,  just  what  each  hen  is  doing.  ^ 

In  the  previous  section  we  mentioned  briefly  the  fact 
that  the  pigmentation  test  is  one  of  the  surest  indica- 
tions of  the  sort  of  layers  you  are  examining.  The  word 
**  pigmentation "  refers  to  the  yellow  coloring  matter 
found  in  the  different  sections  of  the  body,  which  indi- 
cates the  storage  of  fat  subsequently  going  into  the  mak- 
ing of  egg-yolks  as  the  hen  commences  to  lay.  Inas- 
much as  the  average  hen  seems  to  produce  eggs  faster 
than  she  can  secure  the  necessary  elements  from  the  ra- 
tions consumed,  this  stored-up  fat  is  drawn  upon  and 
quickly  absorbed  in  order  to  keep  up  egg  production. 
This  process  results  in  the  partial  bleaching  of  the  color 
of  the  hen  as  laying  progresses,  and  as  the  fat  is  taken 
out.  When  we  refer  to  the  "pigmentation"  test,  then, 
we  refer  to  the  indications  present  of  yellow  pigment 
denoting  fat. 

Tests  among  the  experiment  stations  have  progressed 
so  far  in  the  direction  of  the  pigmentation  test  that  it 
is  now  possible  to  announce  definitely  how  many  eggs 


178  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

are  required  to  "lay  out"  the  yellow  coloring  matter 
in  any  given  section  of  the  body.  Anyone  who  appre- 
ciates the  value  of  culling  at  all  can  readily  appreciate 
what  a  tremendous  value  this  information  has  for  every 
poultry  keeper  who  seriously  uses  it. 

In  taking  up  a  layer  to  3ull  under  the  pigmentation 
test,  the  first  section  to  examine  is  the  vent,  or  the  ab- 
dominal region.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  gen- 
eral characteristics  of  the  vent  of  a  good  potential  layer, 
to  be  used  in  case  the  hens  or  pullets  have  not  yet  com- 
menced to  lay.  It  must  be  understood  that  the  pig- 
mentation test  cannot  be  used  on  pullets  that  have  not 
yet  entered  seriously  upon  their  first  laying  season. 

The  vent  is  the  first  section  to  change  as  soon  as  the 
hen  or  pullet  commences  to  lay,  and  it  changes  very 
rapidly  with  egg  production,  so  that  a  white  vent  or  a 
pink  vent  denotes  that  the  hen  is  then  laying,  while  a 
yellow  vent  is  an  absolute  indication  that  the  hen  has 
not  been  laying. 

The  eye  rings  and  the  ear  lobes  are  the  next  sections 
to  be  influenced  under  the  pigmentation  test.  By  the 
eye  ring  we  mean  the  inner  edge  of  the  eyelid.  It 
bleaches  out  a  little  more  slowly  than  the  vent,  and  the 
ear  lobes  of  fowls  having  white  ear  lobes,  such  as  Leg- 
horns, bleach  out  a  little  slower  than  the  eye  ring,  so 
that  white  ear  lobes  indicate  a  greater  period  of  laying 
than  where  merely  the  vent  or  eye  ring  are  bleached. 
.The  next  section  to  bleach  is  the  beak.  The  pigment 
leaves  the  beak  at  the  base  and  gradually  works  out  to 
the  end  of  the  upper  'beak.  The  lower  beak  bleaches 
faster  than  the  upper.  There  is  a  white  point  on  the 
beak  present  even  before  laying  commences  and  it  should 
not  be  confused  with  the  other  pigment.  A  thoroughly 
bleached  beak  indicates  that  the  fowl  has  been  laying  for 
from  four  to  six  weeks. 


Culling  Farm  Poultry  for  Any  Purpose        179 

The  shanks  are  the  last  section  of  the  body  carrying 
yellow  pigment  to  bleach  and  they  lose  their  color  very 
slowly,  and  in  case  they  are  bleached  out,  they  indicate  a 
very  long  period  of  egg  production.  According  to  the 
New  Jersey  station,  the  color  leaves  the  outer  ring  of 
the  scales,  then  leaves  the  entire  scale,  on  the  front  of 
the  shanks  first,  and,  finally,  after  a  longer  aiid  greater 


Fig.    61 — Pubic    Bone  Test — a    "Three-Finger"    Hen    Having   Fairly   High 
Productive  Capacity. 


production  leaves  the  scales  on  the  rear  of  the  shanks. 
A  thoroughly  bleached  out  shank  on  a  yellow-colored 
bird  of  average  size  and  average  color,  indicates  that  the 
fowl  has  been  laying  fairly  heavy  for  a  period  of  at  least 
from  15  to  20  weeks. 

When  the  hen  or  pullet  ceases  laying  the  yellow  pig- 
ment immediately  returns  to  the  sections  noted,  its  prev- 
alence depending  upon  the  length  of  her  rest  period. 


180  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

Professor  Lewis,  of  the  New  Jersey  station,  is  author- 
ity for  the  statement  that  it  requires  approximately  six 
eggs  to  free  the  vent  entirely  from  the  yellow  pigment 
coloring  matter,  or  from  10  to  12  days  after  the  hen  com- 
mences to  lay ;  from  10  to  15  eggs,  or  from  15  to  20  days, 
to  entirely  free  the  ear  lobes  from  yellow  coloring  mat- 
ter; from  30  to  40  eggs,  or  60  to  75  days,  to  bleach  the 
beak,  or  from  75  to  80  eggs,  or  100  to  120  days,  to  en- 
tirely bleach  out  the  shanks.  Tlie  heavy  layer,  then,  wiU 
carry  bleached  shanks  through  most  of  the  laying  year, 
and  the  200-egg  hens  and  the  300-egg  hens  (if  such  exist 
in  farm  flocks)  will  often  be  the  poorest  looking  hens  in 
the  flock.  The  old  standard  of  ''nice,  pretty  yellow 
legs"  falls  by  the  wayside,  and  the  only  instance  where 
it  should  be  used  in  culling  the  farm  flock  is  in  the  case 
of  using  it  to  secure  the  hens  to  send  to  market. 

Physical  tests,  which  are  also  best  used  in  the  careful, 
individual  examination  of  the  fowls,  can  be  used  to  sup- 
plement the  pigmentation  test  in  selecting  the  layers. 
These  physical  tests  are  not  only  valuable  in  determin- 
ing what  hens  are  not  laying  or  about  to  lay,  but  also  in 
determining  the  future  value  of  young  pullets  rapidly 
approaching  maturity,  but  which  have  not  as  yet  com- 
menced to  lay. 

In  taking  up  a  fowl  to  examine,  after  having  noted 
general  characteristics  as  mentioned  in  a  previous  dis- 
cussion, first  examine  the  vent.  You  will  note  the  condi- 
tion of  the  skin,  the  general  conformation  of  the  abdom- 
inal region,  the  depth  of  keel  or  the  distance  from  the 
point  of  the  breast  bone  to  the  pubic  or  pelvic  bones,  two 
projecting  bones  readily  located.  This  depth  of  keel  is 
chiefly  valuable  because  it  denotes  abdominal  capacity — 
capacity  to  assimilate  a  sufficient  quantity  of  food  to 
make  heavy  laying  possible.  The  fowl  with  a  small  ca- 
pacity here  is  always  a  poor  layer,  simply  because  it  is 


Culling  Farm  Poultry  for  Any  Purpose         181 

physically  impossible  for  her  to  eat  and  assimilate  suffi- 
cient food  to  keep  up  a  fast  gait  of  laying.  The  good 
layers  always  have  a  wide  development  here.  Where 
the  abdominal  capacity  is  sufficient  to  admit  four  fingers 
of  the  hand  between  the  point  of  the  breast  bone  and  the 
projection  of  the  pubic  bones  a  high  producer  is  to  be 
expected.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  all  hens  that  admit  only 
two  fingers  in  this  region  should  be  discarded  as  having 
a  poor  potential  laying  ability,  whether  they  are  now 
laying  or  not. 


Fig.   62 — A    "Two-Finger"    Layer,   the  Kind   to   Send  to  Market. 


The  span  between  the  pubic  bones  can  likewise  be 
measured  by  the  insertion  of  the  fingers,  as  an  indica- 
tion of  the  laying  habits  of  the  hens.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  this  test  is  chiefly  of  value  for  an 
indication  of  present  performance. 

Generally  speaking,  the  spread  between  the  pubic 
bones  is   the  greatest   in   the  high  producers,   varying 


182  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

somewhat  in  all  hens.  When  the  hen  is  not  laying,  as 
at  molting  period,  the  bones  contract  and  a  hen  that  is 
a  good  potential  layer  to  keep  for  the  coming  year  may 
show  a  spread  of  bone  indicating,  at  the  time,  that 
she  is  a  poor  layer.  Hence  the  need  to  take  into  consid- 
eration all  the  tests  mentioned  above,  and  to  keep  this  in 
mind,  if  you  are  culling  at  a  season  of  the  year  when 
most  hens  are  molting.  As  a  general  rule,  a  ' '  two  finger ' ' 
hen,  one  admitting  the  insertion  of  only  two  fingers  be- 
tween the  pubic  bones,  is  an  inferior  layer  and  should 
be  discarded.  Of  course,  any  admitting  less  than  two 
fingers  should  likewise  be  marketed.  The  good  produc- 
ers range  above  the  "two  finger"  rule,  some  running  to 
four  fingers  wide,  but  the  great  majority  are  "three 
finger"  hens. 

Careful  examination  of  the  hens  as  to  type,  condi- 
tion, conformity  to  laying  characteristics,  and  the  tests 
mentioned  above  cannot  fail  to  aid  anyone  in  culling 
the  nonproducers  from  the  flock  with  no  chances  of  mis- 
take, if  the  various  tests  are  mastered  and  thoroughly  in 
hand  before  the  actual  work  commences.  Culling  under 
these  tests  will  disclose  many  things  about  your  flock 
that  you  never  guessed  before. 

On  the  average,  one-third  of  all  farm  hens  are  culls 
and  are  not  producing  sufficient  eggs  to  pay  for  their 
own  keep,  let  alone  earn  a  profit.  This  fact  was  brought 
out  in  the  Iowa  culling  demonstrations  recently  when  10 
million  cull  hens  were  weeded  out  of  farm  flocks. 

The  following  chart,  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  will  serve  to  simplify  the  culling  work. 
It  classifies  and  places  in  a  form  easy  to  read  at  a  glance 
the  outstanding  external  characteristics  of  the  good  and 
bad  layers: 


Culling  Farm  Poultry  for  Any  Purpose        183 


Laying — Therefore 
Keep. 

HEALTH. 

Good  health.  Good  or  fair  con- 
dition of  flesh.     Active.     Alert. 

MOLT. 

Not  molting  or  just  beginning  to 
molt  by  the  last  of  September 
or  in  October. 

COMB. 

Waxy,  full  of  blood,  red  in  color. 


EYE. 

Prominent,  bright,  full  of  life. 

PELVIC  BONES.* 

Thin,  flexible,  spread  apart  more 
than  the  width  of  two  fingers. 

SIZE  OF  ABDOMEN. 

Spread  of  three  or  more  fingers  in 
the  smaller  breeds  and  four  or 
more  in  the  larger  breeds  from 
pelvic  bones  to  end  of  keel. 
Length  of  keel  should  also  be 
considered.  A  hen  with  a  long 
keel  may  have  greater  capacity 
than  one  with  a  short  keel;  but 
greater  spread  between  pelvic 
bones  and  end  of  keel. 

FLEXIBILITY  OF  ABDOMEN. 

Soft,    flexible. 

APPEARANCE  OF  VENT. 

Large,  expanded,  moist. 

SHANK  COLOR. 

(Applies  only  to  yellow-shanked 
breeds.)  Pale  yellow  or  white. 
Broody  hens  or  those  just  re- 
covered from  broodiness  may 
have  yellow  shanks,  but  should 
be  kept  if  they  have  not  begun 
to  molt.  A  flock  on  good  grass 
range  will  retain  yellow  shank 
color  to  a  greater  extent  than 
those  in   bare   yards. 

BEAK  COLOR. 

(Applies  only  to  yellow-beaked 
breeds.)     Pale  or  white. 

VENT  COLOR. 

(Applies  only  to  yellow-skinned 
breeds.)     White  or  pink. 


Not   Laying — Therefore 
CulL 

HEALTH. 

Poor  health,  poor  or  thin  condi- 
tion of  flesh,  overfat,  broken 
down  behind,  listless,  dumpy. 


MOLT. 

Molted  or  beginning  to  molt  early 
in   August. 

COMB. 

Shrunken,  paler  or  duller  red  in 
color,  comparatively  hard,  cov- 
ered with  whitish  scales. 


EYE. 

Sunken,   dull, 


listless    in    appear- 


PELVIC  BONES. 

Thicker,  less  flexible,  spread 
apart  two   fingers   or  less. 

SIZE  OF  ABDOMEN. 

Spread  of  less  than  three  Bngers 
in  the  smaller  breeds  and  Ihss 
than  four  in  the  larger  breeds. 


FLEXIBILITY  OF  ABDOMEN. 

Smaller,  harder,  less  flexible. 

APPEARANCE  OF  VENT. 

Comparatively    small,    hard,    dry. 
puckered. 


SHANK  COLOR. 

(Applies  only  to  yellow-shanked 
breeds.)  Deep  or  medium  yel- 
low. 


BEAK  COLOR. 

(Applies  only  to  yellow.-beaked 
breeds.)  Yellow  or  partly  yel- 
low. 

VENT  COLOR. 

(Applies  only  to  yellow-skinned 
breeds. )      Yellow. 


*  Pelvic  bones  are  the  two  bones 
side  of  the   vent. 


which  can  be  felt  as  points  on  each 


CHAPTER  XII. 
Care  and  Management  for  "Winter  Eggs 


Details  of  First  Importance — Regularity  In  Caring  for  the 

Flock — Keeping  Things  Clean — Should  the 

Layers  Have  Range? 

We  have  already  given  careful  consideration  to  the 
problem  of  correctly  housing  the  laying  flock  and  to  the 
correct  manner  in  which  to  feed  them  for  the  best  pro- 
duction. But  a  good  house  and  a  good  ration  are  not 
the  only  considerations  playing  a  part  in  the  business 
of  securing  a  high  egg  production.  If  they  were,  the 
laying  hen  would  be,  in  truth,  an  "egg  machine"  and 
might  be  managed  with  a  mathematical  certainty  as  to 
the  results  and  profits. 

There  are  also  other  details  entering  into  the  care  of 
the  layers,  particularly  in  the  winter  months,  which  are 
of  prime  importance  in  securing  eggs.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  is  the  water  supply.  It  has  long  since 
been  established  that  between  70  and  75  per  cent  of  an 
egg  is  water.  Many  people  give  considerable  attention 
to  the  matter  of  feeding  the  correct  ration,  who  are  in- 
different about  the  water  supply;  in  other  words,  they 
are  paying  the  bulk  of  their  attention  towards  supplying 
the  ingredients  from  which  the  hen  manufactures  a 
small  part  of  the  egg.  If  she  does  not  have  the  other 
elements,  that  egg  will  not  be  forthcoming  no  matter 
how  good  the  housing,  how  good  the  ration  or  how  good 
her  breeding.  This  is  what  is  meant  when  it  is  said  that 
the  problem  now  is  to  "feed  out  the  lay  already  bred 
into  the  hens." 


186  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

During  the  winter  months  the  maintenance  of  a  con- 
stant supply  of  fresh  water  is  particularly  trying,  espe- 
cially in  severe  weather  when  the  tendency  is  for  it  to 
freeze  within  a  few  minutes  after  being  placed  in  the 
pans.  One  can,  at  this  season,  soon  satisfy  himself  as  to 
the  importance  of  water  in  the  egg  ration  by  carefully 
watering  one  pen  or  flock  of  layers,  seeing  that  the  water 
never  freezes  in  that  pen,  and  by  watering  only  twice  a 
day  another  pen  containing  the  same  number  of  layers. 
The  first  pen  will  greatly  outlay  the  second  and  the  only 
difference  is  in  the  amount  of  water  supplied. 

Since  the  labor  element  is  great  in  maintaining  the 
water  supply  in  freezing  weather,  the  farmer  or  poultry- 
man  should  by  all  means  install  founts  or  watering  de- 
vices which  will  not  freeze.  These  come  in  various  de- 
signs, some  of  them  utilizing  a  vacuum  principle  similar 
to  fireless  cookers,  and  it  is  claimed  that  they  will  not 
freeze,  but  it  should  be  noted  that  hot  water  has  to  be 
placed  in  them  the  night  before  and  it  is  claimed  that  it 
will  be  kept  from  freezing  for  24  hours.  We  have  no 
quarrel  with  these  founts  and  believe  that  they  are  a 
success,  but  we  have  had  excellent  results  from  another 
type. 

This  type  of  fount  is  simply  a  large  galvanized  re- 
ceptacle for  the  water,  made  of  galvanized  iron,  which 
contains  a  chamber  in  the  bottom  for  an  ordinary  oil 
lamp  which  is  refilled  once  each  day.  No  large  flame  is 
necessary,  as  a  small  flame  will  prevent  the  water  freez- 
ing even  in  very  severe  weather.  We  have  found  this 
fount  to  be  extremely  satisfactory  and  to  solve  the  prob- 
lem, as  the  fount  itself  is  sufficiently  large  to  require 
filling  only  once  each  day  and  it  will  serve  a  flock  of  100 
to  300  hens  nicely.  Smaller  sizes  can  be  purchased  from 
any  poultry  supply  dealer  for  smaller  pens. 


Care  and  Management  for  Winter  Eggs         187 

Another  detail  which  often  has  an  important  influ- 
ence on  the  egg  production  is  the  matter  of  oyster  shell. 
The  hens  need  a  tremendous  amount  of  lime  in  their  ra- 
tion if  they  are  to  continue  to  produce  eggs  day  after 
day.  Oyster  shell  is  the  most  economical  and  desirable 
manner  in  which  to  supply  this  and  you  will  find  the 
hens  eating  enormous  quantities  of  it.  They  seem  to  eat 
greedily  of  it  at  times  as  if  it  were  grain,  and  we  have 
always  found  that  they  prefer  it  to  grit. 

A  failure  of  the  supply  of  oyster  shell  in  the  shell 
boxes  is  always  noticeable  in  a  slump  in  the  egg  produc- 
tion for  a  few  days  following.  Many  times  when  our 
hens  hj,ve  undergone  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  eggs 
laid  on  a  given  day  that  was  hard  to  explain,  and  we 
searched  around  for  the  cause,  we  have  found  that  the 
shell  hopper  had  been  inadvertently  allowed  to  go 
"dry."  If  anyone  desires  to  test  the  truth  of  this  fact, 
all  he  has  to  do  is  to  take  the  shell  hopper  away  from 
hens  that  are  on  full  laying  schedule  for  a  day  or  two 
and  note  the  result.  We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  they 
will  all  promptly  stop  laying,  but  the  effect  of  the  ab- 
sence of  the  shell  will  be  noticeable  for  several  days 
afterwards. 

And,  of  course,  grit  is  another  necessity  that  must  not 
be  overlooked.  It  is  not  as  important  as  the  shell,  be- 
cause the  oyster  shell  may,  for  a  time,  take  the  place  of 
it,  and  the  fowls  may  even  get  along  fairly  well  for  a 
time  without  any  grit  at  aU,  but  it  is  a  necessity  never- 
theless. 

Good,  clean,  deep  litter  is  a  prime  necessity  for  the 
laying  hens.  One  might  as  well  try  to  keep  ducks  out 
of  water  as  to  try  and  keep  laying  hens  successfully  in 
the  winter  without  using  a  litter  in  the  poultry  house. 
There  are  a  number  of  different  substances  recommended 
for  litter  in  the  laying  house,  but  we  have  found  none 


188  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

that  seems  to  be  as  satisfactory  as  good,  clean  straw. 
And  this  is  something  which  every  farmer  has  right  at 
hand. 

The  litter  must  be  renewed  frequently.  This  does  not 
mean  that  new  straw  can  be  piled  on  top  of  the  old  dirty 
litter.  It  means  that  the  old  litter  must  be  removed,  the 
floors  swept,  and  the  new  litter  put  in.  If  one  is  careful 
in  his  movements  and  works  in  one  pen  at  a  time,  he  can 
accomplish  the  work  without  unduly  agitating  the  hens. 
Always  be  quiet  and  slow  in  your  movements  when 
around  the  hens.  A  frightened  hen  is  not  likely  to 
prove  a  steady,  consistent  layer. 

Tests  have  recently  been  conducted  at  certain  stations 
looking  to  the  value  of  good,  clean  litter  and  it  was 
found  that  where  dirty  litter  was  allowed  to  accumulate 
in  the  laying  houses  that  the  egg  production  slumped, 
and  that  as  soon  as  clean,  sweet  litter  was  placed  in  the 
same  houses,  the  production  immediately  increased  in 
amount. 

Regulaeity  In  Caring  for  the  Flock 

What  we  have  said  about  regularity  in  caring  for  the 
young  stock  applies  with  equal  force  to  caring  for  the 
laying  hens.  One  cannot  be  indifferent  and  slip-shod  in 
his  work  here  and  expect  any  great  records  from  the 
layers.  Regularity  in  feeding  and  care  is  of  the  first 
importance  to  the  farmer  or  poultryman  because  it  is 
through  this  practice  that  the  best  results  are  obtained 
and,  consequently,  the  best  profits. 

There  should  be  a  regular  time  for  each  duty  in  re- 
gard to  the  laying  flock  and  then  the  work  will  be  more 
likely  to  be  done  promptly.  The  droppings  should  be 
gathered  from  the  droppings  board  each  morning  before 
six  0  'clock,  as  this  is  the  best  time  of  the  whole  day.  The 


Care  and  Management  for  Winter  Eggs         189 

hens  are  then  all  busy  in  the  litter  getting  their  break- 
fast and  are  less  likely  to  be  disturbed,  as  few,  if  any,  of 
them  are  then  on  the  nests. 

Later  the  main  morning  feeding  can  be  done,  if  it  has 
not  already  been  taken  care  of,  the  water  founts  filled 
and  the  lamps  serving  them,  if  you  have  anti-freeze 
founts,  trimmed  and  filled.  If  the  mash  hoppers  are 
low  and  need  to  be  filled  this  work  can  be  done.  The 
flock  will  then  require  no  more  attention  until  noon 
when  the  sprouted  oats  or  other  green  food  is  fed  and 
the  first  gathering  of  eggs  made.  In  freezing  weather, 
the  eggs  will  have  to  be  gathered  oftener  to  prevent 
freezing  in  the  nests. 

During  the  afternoon,  no  further  attention  will  be 
required  until  about  3 :30  or  4  o  'clock  when  the  evening 
grain  ration  is  given.  This  should  be  fed  early  enough 
so  that  the  hens  can  go  to  roost  with  full  crops.  If  arti- 
ficial lighting  is  followed  this  feeding  can  be  delayed 
until  two  hours  before  the  lights  are  turned  off  for  the 
night.  The  eggs  are  then  gathered,  the  nests  closed  up 
so  that  the  birds  cannot  roost  in  them,  and  the  work  for 
the  day  is  over. 

Regularity  and  attention  to  every  detail,  however 
trivial,  is  the  great  cornerstone  of  success  in  poultry 
keeping.  This  is  even  more  important  where  the  poul- 
try work  is  a  sideline  to  some  other  occupation. 

Keepinq  Things  Clean 

The  importance  of  keeping  things  clean  in  the  laying 
house  is  much  greater  than  many  people  imagine.  We 
sometimes  think  that  it  is  the  truest  index  of  whether  or 
not  the  individual  will  succeed,  or  is  a  success,  is  to  know 
whether  they  make  a  practice  of  cleaning  up  the  drop- 
pings in  the  laying  house  at  least  every  other  day  and 


190  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

regularly  scald  the  feed  and  water  dishes  and  give  the 
roosts  a  thorough  spraying. 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  on  those  farms  where  the 
droppings  are  allowed  to  accumulate  under  the  roosts 
and  go  for  weeks  before  they  are  taken  away,  that 
there  you  will  find  the  attendant  having  trouble  in  some 
way  with  his  flock.  It  may  not  be  the  droppings  that 
are  to  blame,  but  there  is  an  indication  here  by  which 
we  can  judge  the  character  of  the  man.  And  it  indi- 
cates a  tendency  to  slip-shod  methods. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  farms  you  visit  where  cleanli- 
ness is  the  first  rule,  there  you  will  generally  find  the 
most  successful  poultry  people  and  nice  flocks  of  con- 
tented layers  busy  shelling  out  the  eggs. 

A  few  minutes  every  morning  will  suffice  to  keep  the 
laying  houses  clean  and  will,  in  the  end,  save  much  time 
and  labor.  It  is  also  one  of  the  surest  preventives  of 
disease  and,  from  that  standpoint  alone,  is  worth  while. 

Should  the  Layers  Save  Range  f 

Where  the  laying  floe'k  is  housed  in  any  one  of  the  lay- 
ing houses  illustrated  in  the  Chapter  on  Buildings,  or 
others  embodying  the  same  principles,  range  should  be 
denied  the  layers  during  the  winter  and  spring  months ; 
at  least  until  the  ground  is  dry  and  the  weather  settled. 

Hens  that  are  allowed  to  run  in  and  out  of  the  laying 
houses  become  dissatisfied  on  days  when  they  have  to  be 
kept  penned  up  on  account  of  the  weather  and  they  do 
not  produce  the  results  they  do  where  they  are  confined 
to  the  houses  all  the  time. 

We  have  demonstrated  to  our  own  satisfaction  that  a 
hen  with  wet  feet  will  not  lay  as  well  as  the  one  kept  in 
a  dry,  well-ventilated  laying  house.  It  is  common  prac- 
tice for  farmers  to  turn  the  hens  out  whenever  possible 


Care  and  Management  for  Winter  Eggs         191 

and  it  will  be  hard  for  those  in  the  habit  to  keep  the 
hens  penned  up  in  the  laying  house.  But  the  better  re- 
sults in  egg  yield  will  justify  it. 

Another  reason  why  the  layers  should  be  denied  free 
range  during  the  main  laying  season  is  that  they  pro- 
duce a  larger  percentage  of  soiled  eggs  at  this  time. 
They  get  their  feet  and  feathers  wet  or  muddy  and  then 
when  they  get  on  the  nest  they  not  only  soil  their  own 
eggs  but  those  already  in  the  nests.  Hens  with  wet 
feathers  or  muddy  feet  cannot  produce  clean  eggs.  And 
these  eggs  cannot  be  washed  and  sent  to  market  as 
"firsts."  The  candler  will  spot  them  in  a  minute  and 
they  will  be  classed  as  "dirties"  and  will  bring  a  price 
much  lower  than  top  on  the  market. 

This  is  another  reason  for  keeping  the  laying  house 
clean  and  the  droppings  gathered  up  as  often  as  pos- 
sible. It  makes  the  production  of  pure  clean  eggs  pos- 
sible and  does  not  penalize  you  by  a  large  number  of 
*' dirties." 

Where  the  laying  flock  has  the  proper  amount  of  room 
and  has  a  good  straw  litter  to  work  in,  and  is  given  a 
good  ration  supplemented  with  green  food  at  noon,  there 
is  absolutely  no  advantage  whatever  to  be  gained  from 
allowing  them  free  range.  Instead,  the  egg  yield  is  cer- 
tain to  be  less  because  more  of  the  ration  consumed  will 
be  going  to  supply  the  bodily  needs  of  the  hens  caused 
by  them  running  all  over  the  place.  In  other  words, 
they  wiU  be  ' '  running  off ' '  the  energy  that  might  other- 
wise be  going  to  eggs.  The  best  plan  is  to  keep  the 
layers  confined  to  the  laying  house  throughout  the  lay- 
ing season. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
Artificial  Lighting  for  Winter  Eggs 


Purpose — ^Eesults — Costs — Systems   One  May   Use — How  to 

EuN  Lights — Dangers  and  Pitfalls  to  Avoid 

— Automatic  Eegulation 

Artificial  lighting  will  be  a  new  wrinkle  to  a  great 
many  people.  And  a  good  many  others  who  have  heard 
about  it  haven't  gotten  over  the  idea  that  it  is  a  great 
joke  or  hoax.  But  the  joke,  if  there  is  any,  is  on  the  fel- 
low who  will  not  take  seriously  to  the  idea  that  artificial 
lighting  will  increase  winter  egg  production. 

By  artificial  lighting  we  mean  that  we  use  lights  in  the 
laying  house  during  the  short  days  of  fall,  winter  and 
early  spring  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  normal 
working  day  of  the  hens.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
average  short  winter  day  does  not  give  the  ^average  pul- 
let or  hen  sufficient  time  in  which  to  eat  and  assimilate 
sufficient  feed  to  make  heavy  egg  production  possible. 
It  is  well  known  that  if  a  hen  goes  to  roost  at  night 
with  an  unlaid  egg  in  her  system  that  the  tendency  is 
to  reabsorb  it  and  it  goes  to  fat.  By  simply  increasing 
the  length  of  the  working  day  through  artificial  lighting 
of  hen  houses,  we  make  it  possible  for  the  hens  not  so 
efficient  in  the  digestion  and  assimilation  of  their  feed 
to  complete  the  process  and  deposit  their  eggs  in  the 
nests  before  going  to  roost. 

Does  this  sound  foolish  to  you?  Then  stop  to  con- 
sider that  the  best  laying  season  of  the  whole  year  is  in 
the  spring  and  early  summer  months.     Why  is  this  ? 

13 


194 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


It  must  be  due  to  the  natural  conditions  obtaining  at 
that  time.  We  have,  for  years,  sought  to  imitate  these 
natural  conditions,  especially  in  making  up  the  elements 
going  into  the  ration,  in  the  thought  that  if  we  could  so 
feed  them  in  the  winter  months  that  we  would  be  likely 
to  get  an  increased  egg  production.    And  this  has  been 


:OCTOBER 


NOVEMBER 


DECEMBER 


i 


III 


i 


zs 


iii; 


^"s 


\t 


to 


PR06UCTION  CHART  OF  ,3S0   WHITE  L£QHO»NJHfLL£TS 
UNDER     LIQ-HTS 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiTO=mm 


Pig.  63 — Line  Shows  Increase  in  Egg  Production  After  Artificial  Lighting 
Was  Started. 


true,  but  soon  the  investigators  determined  to  make  the 
hen's  working  day  in  the  winter  just  like  the  day  in 
spring  and  the  moment  they  tried  that  they  were  ac- 
corded a  revelation. 

Do  not  fall  into  the  error  of  thinking,  as  so  many  peo- 
ple thoughtlessly  do,  that  by  artificial  lighting  we 
"fool"  the  hens  into  thinking  it  is  daylight  and  they 


Artificial    TAghting  for   Winter  Eggs  195 

then  go  and  lay  their  eggs.  Such  an  expression  only- 
reveals  the  stupendous  ignorance  of  these  people  for 
the  processes  by  which  the  egg  is  produced.  There  is 
no  "fooling"  about  it;  it  is  a  simple  matter  of  supply- 
ing a  given  amount  of  raw  material  and  affording  suffi- 
cient time  to  make  it  possible  for  the  efficient  hen  to  com- 
plete the  process  and  deliver  the  goods. 

The  purpose  of  artificial  lighting  is  to  lengthen  the 
day  in  winter  to  correspond  to  the  normal  working  day 
of  the  hens  in  spring,  in  order  to  make  it  possible  for 
them  to  eat  and  assimilate  their  feed  to  better  advantage, 
resulting  in  an  increased  egg  production. 

Results 

Of  course,  people  are  interested  in  results.  That  is 
the  one  safe  method  by  which  the  value  of  an  innova- 
tion can  be  judged.  What  are  the  results  of  artificial 
laying?  Do  they  justify  the  installation  of  lights  in 
the  laying  house? 

We  have  talked  to  dozens  of  farmers  and  poultry 
raisers  all  over  the  Middle  West  who  are  using  artificial 
lighting  in  their  laying  houses  and  without  exception 
they  have  all  stated  that  it  greatly  increased  winter  egg 
production.  The  various  results  obtained  ranged  from 
30  per  cent  to  45  per  cent  increase  in  the  egg  produc- 
tion in  the  winter  months. 

Hugo  Anderson,  the  Minnesota  poultryman  mentioned 
in  an  earlier  chapter,  said:  ** Isn't  artificial  lighting  a 
great  help  ?  I  wouldn  't  be  without  the  lights  for  any- 
thing! I  commence  to  run  the  lights  on  the  first  of 
November  and  run  them  through  the  winter  14  hours 
a  day,  right  straight  through  until  they  are  no  longer 
necessary.  I  commence  the  lights  at  6  a.  m.  and  run 
them  until  8  p.  m.    Of  course  during  the  day  when  they 


196  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

are  not  needed,  they  are  turned  off."  The  lights  have 
been  responsible  for  Mr.  Anderson  securing  a  40  per 
cent  egg  production  from  a  flock  of  1,000  old  hens  in 
November. 

Mrs.  Etta  Bechtel,  an  Iowa  farm  woman  who  uses  ar- 
tificial lighting,  states  that  her  egg  production  increased 
30  per  cent  immediately  after  .the  lights  were  installed. 

In  a  test  conducted  by  a  New  York  State  commercial 
poultryman  to  determine  the  value  and  comparative 
returns  of  artificial  lighting  as  compared  with  the  old 
method,  70  pullets  were  placed  in  a  pen  under  arti- 
ficial lights.  Another  flock  of  350  pullets  were  not  given 
the  lights.  The  70  pullets  laid  1,108  eggs  during  the 
test  and  the  350  pullets  laid  1,917  eggs.  The  market 
value  of  the  eggs  laid  by  the  79  pullets  under  lights  was 
$47.01  and  of  the  eggs  laid  by  the  350  pullets  not  under 
lights  $83.94.  The  value  of  the  product  produced  per 
bird  was  23  2-3  cents  each  for  the  350  pullets  not  un- 
der lights  and  69  cents  each  for  the  70  pullets  under 
lights. 

In  tests  conducted  at  Cornell  University  extending 
through  a  whole  year  where  an  equal  number  of  hens 
of  the  same  age  were  placed  in  identical  houses,  lights 
being  given  to  one  pen  and  not  to  the  other,  it  was  found 
that  the  average  annual  production  of  the  lighted  pen 
was  38.3  per  cent  and  of  the  unlighted  pen  the  produc- 
tion was  30.2  per  cent  for  the  year.  In  the  case  of  a 
similar  group  of  pullets,  the  lighted  pen  showed  an  an- 
nual production  of  41.95  per  cent  and  the  unlighted 
pen  34.28  per  cent.  The  clear  gain  in  favor  of  lights 
based  on  the  average  of  the  two  pens  of  7.9  per  cent. 
The  cash  return  would  have  been  even  greater  because 
the  lights  brought  the  great  bulk  of  the  production  at 
the  season  of  the  year  when  market  prices  were  the 
highest 


Artificial  Lighting  for   Winter  Eggs  197 

Costs 

What  does  it  cost  to  run  artificial  lights,  That  is  a 
question  that  will  instantly  present  itself  to  the  aver- 
age person.  The  cost  has  varied  under  different  con- 
ditions, but  in  almost  every  instance,  it  is  surprisingly 
low.  The  cost  will  depend  upon  the  system  used,  the 
number  of  lights  run  and  the  efficiency  of  the  burner 
or  bulb. 

D.  E.  Carlson,  who  keeps  a  flock  of  1,000  Leghorn  lay- 
ers as  a  sideline  to  running  a  115-acre  Iowa  farm, 
stated  to  the  author  that  his  electric  lights  cost  him 
from  $2  to  $3  per  month.  He  uses  a  75-watt  bulb  in 
each  pen  20  feet  square  in  his  Iowa  Semi-Monitor  House. 

Mrs.  Etta  Bechtel  uses  gas  lights  which  are  piped  into 
each  pen  and  her  son  stated  to  the  writer  that  the  en- 
tire cost  of  the  plant,  including  the  lights  in  the  resi- 
dence and  elsewhere  amounted  to  $1.25  per  week.  These 
lights  supply  1,000  winter  layers,  and  as  soon  as  they 
were  installed  the  production  increased  30  per  cent! 

In  a  test  conducted  at  the  New  York  State  School  of 
Agriculture  at  Cobleskill,  35  Leghorn  pullets  and  30 
Leghorn  hens  were  supplied  electric  lights  during  the 
three  winter  months  of  November,  December,  1918,  and 
January,  1919,  at  a  cost  of  $2.93.  In  the  meantime, 
they  returned  a  profit  above  feed  and  cost  of  light  per 
bird  of  $1.59  for  the  three  months. 

Systems  One  Mat  Use 

Any  number  of  lighting  systems  are  available  to  the 
farmer  who  desires  to  give  the  hens  the  benefit  of  ar- 
tificial lighting.  Electricity,  gas,  or  oil  lanterns  are 
all  good  and  will  serve  to  secure  the  results  in  mind. 
Some  of  these  systems  are  naturally  better  than  others, 
when  viewed  from  all  angles. 


198  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

Electric  lights  are  probably  the  most  economical  in 
cost  for  maintenance,  and  they  are  certainly  the  most 
economical  from  the  standpoint  of  labor  involved  in 
managing  them.  They  can  be  automatically  regulated 
by  means  of  alarm  clock  devices  so  that  the  lights  will 
be  turned  on  and  off  at  the  proper  time,  making  it  un- 
necessary for  the  attendant  to  get  up  to  turn  on  the 
lights  or  make  the  round  of  the  pens  to  light  the  lights 
where  lanterns  or  gas  lights  are  used.  Then  the  fire 
danger  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Gas  lights  and  gas  lanterns  may  be  used,  however,  and 
will  accomplish  the  same  purpose.  The  small  high  can- 
dle power  gasoline  lanterns  are  also  good,  but  they  have 
the  unhappy  faculty  of  getting  clogged  up  because  of 
the  dust  in  the  air  and  cause  trouble. 

Where  one  has  a  connection  to  an  electric  current, 
or  can  install  a  farm  lighting  plant  generating  elec- 
tricity, it  is,,  by  all  odds,  the  most  desirable  method  to 
use  in  supplying  the  lights. 

How  TO  Run  Lights 

Tests  have  been  made  of  lights  under  almost  every 
kind  of  a  condition  to  determine  the  best  way  in  which 
to  run  them.  The  lights  have  been  started  in  the  morn- 
ing and  run  until  early  in  the  evening;  they  have  not 
been  started  at  all  in  the  morning  and  have  been  run 
until  late  at  night,  and  again  they  have  been  started 
about  6  a.  m.  and  run  until  9  p.  m. — all  with  the  idea 
of  determining  what  plan  would  produce  the  best  re- 
sults. 

It  would  seem  from  these  tests,  which  were  conducted 
at  Cornell  University,  and  which  covered  an  entire  year 
in  extent,  that  the  best  time  in  which  to  run  the  lights 
is  from  6  a.  m.  until  9  p.  m.,  shutting  off  the  lights  dur- 


Artificial  Lighting  for    Winter  Eggs  199 

ing  the  day  when  not  needed.  This  gives  one  a  work- 
ing day  of  15  hours,  which  is  normal,  as  based  on  the 
normal  period  of  daylight  in  the  season  of  the  year  when 
egg  production  is  usually  at  its  highest  peak.  We  have 
heard  of  no  method  of  running  the  lights  that  gives 
better  results. 

The  lights  should  be  started  not  later  than  November 
first  and  run  right  straight  through  without  a  break  un- 
til the  normal  period  of  daylight  merges  into  these  hours 
and  makes  their  use  unnecessary.  This  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  the  hens  or  pullets  being  prematurely 
thrown  into  a  molt  through  the  sudden  shutting  off  of 
the  lights. 

Dangers  and  Pitfalls  to  Avoid    • 

The  greatest  danger  of  artificial  lighting  is  the  ever- 
present  menace  of  throwing  the  pullets  or  hens  into  a 
premature  molt.  If  regularity  in  the-  care  of  hens  ever 
meant  anything  it  certainly  means  everything  here.  The 
attendant  must  make  up  his  or  her  mind  that  the  lights 
are  to  be  run  on  a  regular  schedule  that  does  not  vary 
two  minutes  day  after  day,  or  they  had  best  let  the 
lights  alone.  These  irregularities  have  a  tendency  to 
throw  the*  hens  into  premature  molts  which  interfere 
with  the  egg  records. 

Another  tendency  is  to  push  the  hens  a  little  too  hard, 
and  it  is  apt  to  result  in  leg  weakness  and  even  entire 
loss  of  use  of  the  legs.  This  comes  from  undue  forcing 
through  running  the  lights  too  long  and  if  there  is  any 
indication  of  it,  the  lights  should  either  be  cut  down 
one  hour  in  the  length  they  are  run,  gradually  of  course, 
or  the  feed  fed  in  light  litter  for  several  days.  Some- 
times, forcing  the  hens  to  work  too  hard  in  the  litter 
causes  this  trouble,  which  is  undoubtedly  a  form  of 
paralysis. 


200 


The  Modern  Farm  Hen 


Moderation  is  always  the  best  policy.  One  cannot 
fly  very  far  in  the  face  of  Nature  without  inviting  dis- 
aster.    Common  sense  must  be  the  rule  in  running  the 


or  coppEtt 

C  NO.  30  wii*e  coMNecrim 

ntAP  THI»*€tt  TO  AiAPM 
CLAPPCIt 

I>  Motse  nt/KP 


Fig.  64 — Simple    Alarm    Clock    Arrangement    to    Automatically    Turn    on 
Lights,    Perfected  by  Irving  King,    aa  Iowa   Poultrj-man. 

lights  and  the  first  sensible  thought  is  that  the  efficiency 
of  the  laying  flock  must  not  be  broken  down  by  unwise 
and  injudicious  use  of  the  lighting  system. 

Automatic  Regulation  of  Lights 

The  accompanying  sketch  shows  a  simple  plan  where- 
by the  lights  may  be  automatically  turned  on  through 
the  use  of  an  alarm  clock  and  a  mouse  trap.  This  de- 
vice was  first  made  by  Irving  King,  an  Iowa  poultry 
raiser.  It  is  simplicity  in  itself  and  the  sketch  explains 
the  principle  on  which  it  works.  One  point  should  be 
kept  in  mind  and  that  is  that  the  string  attached  to  the 
clapper  of  the  clock  and  the  trigger  of  the  trap  must 
not  be  taut,  but,  at  the  same  time,  taut  enough  to  jiggle 
the  trigger  and  spring  it. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
Marketing  Farm  Eggs  Successfully 


Shipping  Egos — How  to  Pack  for  Shipment — Use  of  Cartons — 
Grading  Eggs — Private  Trade — Advertising 

The  most  satisfactory  way  in  which  to  market  eggs 
produced  on  a  large  scale  is  to  market  them  in  a  whole- 
sale way;  that  is,  they  are  shipped  to  commission  deal- 
ers or  jobbers  who,  in  turn,  parcel  them  out  to  the  re- 
tailers or  consumers.  The  fundamental  work  of  the  egg 
farmer  is  that  of  a  producer  and  unless  it  is  possible 
for  him  to  join  a  co-operative  egg  marketing  association 
made  possible  by  the  presence  of  a  large  number  of 
shippers  in  his  locality,  it  will  be  best  for  him  to  utilize 
the  existing  marketing  agencies.  He  cannot  go  into  the 
merchandising  side  of  the  business  to  very  great  an  ex- 
tent without  running  a  risk  of  sacrificing  something  on 
the  production  side. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  sale  of  eggs  produced  on  a 
large  scale  cannot  be  successfully  transacted  on  the  local 
market.  The  consumption  of  the  average  local  market  is 
limited  and  unless  one  lives  near  a  good-sized  city  the 
risk  is  that  at  times  there  will  be  no  demand  for  the 
eggs  produced.  To  insure  an  outlet,  then,  it  is  wise 
to  cater  to  the  market  of  the  larger  cities  where  the  de- 
mand is  always  constant  and  to  ship  the  eggs  in  whole- 
sale lots  rather  than  to  attempt  to  parcel  them  out  a 
dozen  at  a  time  around  home. 

This  wiU  insure,  in  the  long  run,  a  better  return  for 
the  eggs  than  the  local  markets  will  afford,  even  though 


202  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

the  eggs  may  be  marketed  at  retail  around  home,  be- 
cause the  level  of  prices  at  wholesale  is  generally  high- 
er than  at  retail  out  in  the. country  districts  where  they 
are  produced  and  where  eggs  are  comparatively  plenti- 
ful. 

The  New  York  City  market  stands  first  as  the  best 
market  for  white  eggs;  by  this  we  mean  that  the  prin- 
cipal demand  is  for  white  eggs  and  that  it  is  the  white 
eggs  which  are  most  likely  to  command  a  premium  in 
price.  Boston  demands  a  brown  egg  and  prefers  it  to 
the  white  egg.  Buffalo  and  Detroit  prefer  white  eggs. 
Always  ascertain  the  preference  of  the  market  in  re- 
gard to  white  or  brown  eggs  and  then  cater  to  the  mar- 
kets which  prefer  the  kind  of  eggs  you  are  producing. 
There  is  no  object  in  shipping  your  eggs  to  a  market 
that  does  not  care  for  them  and  that  even  goes  to  the 
extent  of  penalizing  you  for  shipping  them  by  paying 
you  a  lower  price  for  them. 

The  reason  for  this  preference  for  white  or  brown 
shelled  eggs  is  often  hard  to  understand  or  explain.  It 
is  probably  due  to  habit  more  than  anything  else  and 
when  all  the  people  in  a  given  locality  get  in  the  habit 
of  buying  a  white  shelled  egg  it  is  hard  to  sell  them  any- 
thing else,  or  vice  versa. 

Eggs  for  market  are  shipped  in  egg  cases  holding  30 
dozen  eggs.  The  man  with  a  flock  of  1,000  layers  on  the 
side  will  have  several  cases  in  transit  all  the  time.  He 
will  soon  come  to  .think  no  more  of  shipping  his  eggs 
to  New  York  City  than  he  would  think  of  going  to  the 
neighboring  town  to  do  his  trading.  Market  eggs  gen- 
erally go  forward  by  express,  in  fact,  it  would  be  foolish 
to  try  and  ship  them  any  other  way.  Express  rates  are 
not  high,  it  costing  less  than  $1.50  per  case  to  ship  eggs 
from  Iowa  to  New  York  City  at  the  present  time. 


Marketing  Farm  Eggs  Successfully  203 

Select  a  good,  reliable  commission  firm  in  the  city 
to  which  you  are  shipping  and  as  soon  as  you  have  found 
him  to  be  reliable,  stick  to  him.  People  who  constantly 
change  firms  are  in  no  way  to  get  the  best  price  for 
their  product  and  are  likely  to  fall  into  the  hands  of 
a  dishonest  concern  before  they  get  through. 

One  can  generally  secure  the  names  of  reliable  com- 
mission firms  through  advertisements  in  the  poultry 
journals,  by  writing  to  other  successful  market  egg 
producers  in  your  state  of  whom  you  may  learn,  or  by 


Fig.   65 — Egg  Cartons  Containing  Your  Farm  Name  Quild  Up  a  Demand 
for  Your   Eggs. 

writing  to  the  express  agent  in  the  city  to  which  you 
wish  to  ship  telling  him  that  you  desire  to  ship  eggs  and 
asking  him  to  recommend  a  reliable  dealer  to  you.  Or 
you  may  ask  your  local  banker  or  merchant  to  look 
in  his  Dun  or  Bradstreet  directory  for  the  names*  of  re- 
liable firms  on  the  market  and  then  write  to  each  of 
them  for  particulars  as  to  their  service,  how  to  pack  for 
shipment,   etc.     If  you  will  address  a  postal  card  to 


204  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

your  express  agent,  he  can  secure  for  you  from  his  com- 
pany several  pamphlets  explanatory  of  the  best  man- 
ner in  which  to  pack  and  mark  eggs  for  shipment. 
These  will  be  cheerfully  furnished  by  the  express  com- 
pany free  of  charge. 

How  TO  Pack  for  Shipment 

From  a  pamphlet  issued  by  the  American  Railway, 
Express  Company  under  the  title,  *'The  Right  Way  to 
Ship  Eggs,"  we  quote  the  following  directions: 

The  losses  due  to  broken  eggs  run  into  thousands  of  dollars 
each  month. 

It's  partly  our  fault,  and  partly  the  shipper's. 

Eggs  shipped  by  express  must  necessarily  be  handled  many 
times.  They  should  be  packed  to  stand  ordinary  handling.  Our 
duty  is  to  prevent  rough  handling. 

We  are  asking  shippers  to  prevent  losses  due  to  poor  Packing 
and  poor  Marking. 

Here  are  a  few  important  rules  of  particular  importance  to 
shippers  of  eggs: — 

Shipper's  Safety  Eules 

Don't  expose  eggs  to  excessive  cold  or  to  heat.  Store  them  in 
a  cool,  well-ventilated  room. 

Don't  hold  eggs  too  long  before  shipping.  This  causes  exces- 
sive shrinkage. 

Don't  wash  eg?s  for  shipment.  It  removes  Nature's  protec- 
tion, causing  rapid  decay. 

Use  good,  secure  Egg  Cases. 

Don't  use  Second-Hand  Cases  unless  well  reinforced.  Flat  strap 
iron  is  best,  as  it  does  not  interfere  with  proper  stowing  of  cases 
in  cars,  etc. 

Don't  use  second-hand  fillers. 

Don't  ship  extra-large  eggs  with  regular  sizes.  The  standard 
filler  is  only  2%  inches  high.  Eggs  longer  than  2^  inches  are 
almost  certain  to  be  broken. 

Don't  mix  duck  eggs  and  hen  eggs  in  same  ease.  Keep  for 
local  use  the  irregular  or  imperfect  eggs. 


Marketing  Farm  Eggs  Successfully  205 

Don't  fail  to  place  a  good  level  cushion  of  excelsior  or  some 
other  such  material,  on  the  top  and  bottom  of  such  ease. 

Don't  faU  to  nail  the  lids  down  firmly — an  extra  nail  or  two 
may  save  the  loss  of  a  dozen  eggs. 

About  Marking 

Remove  or  cancel  all  old  marks  on  cases. 

Put  shipper's  name  and  address  and  consignee's  name  and 
address  on  each  end  of  each  case  you  ship.  This  will  insure  quick 
returns. 

Mark  with  stencil,  good  substantial  tags,  or  heavy  address  card, 
firmly  tacked  down. 

If  labels  are  used,  paste  them  down  securely. 

Mark  the  cases  to  denote  the  number   of   dozen   therein. 


Safety  Eules  for  Express  Employes 

Insist  on  strict  enforcement  of  the  packing  rules. 

See  that  crates  are  properly  marked,  all  old  marks  removed. 

Handle  eggs  carefully. 

Guard  against  accidents. 

Keep  lot  shipments  together. 

Keep  cases  of  eggs  right  side  up  always. 

Keep  eggs  dry  and  away  from  heat  or  extreme  cold. 

Deliver  promptly. 

Express  Classification  Eules 

"Standard  egg  cases  or  carriers  (sometimes  termed  'gift' 
cases)  must  be  made  of  hard  wood  of  not  less  than  the  following 
dimensions:  ^ 

"Sides,  top,  and  bottom,  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness; ends  and  center  partitions,  seven-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in 
thickness;  and  end  cleats,  one  and  one-half  by  seven-sixteenths  of 
an  inch  in  thickness. 

"Second-hand  'standard'  or  'gift'  cases  or  carriers  (cases  or 
carriers  which  have  already  been  used  in  transportation  of  eggs, 
and  re-used)  must  be  strapped  with  iron,  wire  or  wooden  straps 
on  the  sides  and  bottom  at  each  end. 

"Eggs  packed  in  orange,  lemon,  shoe  or  other  miscellaneous 
boxes  or  in  'standard'  cases  or  carriers  which  are  too  fraU  to 
stand  transportation  will  not  he  accepted. 


206  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

' '  All  trays  and  dividing  boards  must  be  of  hard  calendar  straw- 
board,  weighing  not  less  than  three  pounds  to  the  set,  and  of 
sufficient  size  to  fill  the  compartments  to  prevent  shifting;  the 
bottom  dividing  boards  must  be  placed  next  to  the  eggs  and  on 
top  of  a  cushion  of  excelsior,  cork  shavings,  cut  straw  or  corru- 
gated strawboard  cushion;  the  top  dividing  boards  to  be  placed 
next  to  the  eggs,  and  covered  with  sufficient  excelsior,  cork  shav- 
ings, cut  straw  or  corrugated  cushion  to  hold  the  contents  firmly 
in  place. 

"Eggs  in  pulphoard  cushion  carton  filers  packed  in  standard 
egg  cases  will  be  accepted  for  shipment  at  same  rates  and  esti- 
mated weight  as  when  packed  with  ordinary  fillers. 

"Cases  or  carriers,  whether  new  or  second-hand,  containing 
second-hand  fillers,  will  not  be  accepted,  except  that  pulpboard 
moulded  fillers  may  be  used  as  often  as  same  are  in  proper  con- 
dition." 

Use  of  Cabtons 

The  inherent  value  of  goods — the  utility  value — 
plays  but  a  small  part  in  determining  the  sale  price,  in 
a  great  many  commodities.  This  is  particularly  true  in 
the  case  of  food  products.  If  it  were  not  true,  for  in- 
stance, we  would  be  content  to  buy  coats  with  several 
sizes  of  buttons  sewed  on  them^  or  made  from  different 
pieces  of  cloth.  If  it  were  not  true,  we  should  find  styles 
playing  little  favor  in  the  clothing  business.  If  it  were 
not  true,  we  would  buy  our  rolled  oats  in  bulk  or  our 
cookies  in  bulk,  rather  than  in  nice,  attractive  cartons. 

There  is  another  consideration,  perhaps  several  con- 
siderations, which  play  a  large  part  in  determining  the 
sale  price  of  a  food  commodity,  as  distinguished  from 
other  commodities  of  like  kind.  One  of  these  is  attrac- 
tiveness. We  buy  largely  through  our  sense  of  sight ;  if 
food  commodities  are  clean,  attractive  and  uniform  in 
size  or  quality,  they  look  "good"  and  we  buy  them.  On 
the  other  hand,  similar  products  just  as  fresh  and  valu- 
able from  the  standpoint  of  nourishment,  but  less  at- 
tractive do  not  appeal  to  us. 


Marketing  Farm  Eggs  Successfully 


207 


Suppose  we  apply  this  thought  to  market  eggs.  If 
you  have  to  buy  market  eggs  and  walk  into  a  market  or 
store  and  have  a  choice  of  three  grades  of  eggs,  (1) 
dirty,  irregular  mixed  brown  and  white  eggs,  (2)  grad- 
ed eggs  all  white  or  all  brown,  (3)  graded  white  or 
brown  eggs  placed  in  cartons  stamped  with  a  guaranty 
of  quality  and  the  producer's  name  and  address,  which 
lot  of  eggs  will  appeal  to  you  the  most?  It  is  certain 
that  if  you  have  any  element  of  clioice  at  all  you  will 
buy  your  eggs  from  the  last  two  classes.  The  more  dis- 
criminating city  buyers  are  in  the  habit  of  buying  stand- 
ardized, branded  goods  and  they  soon  learn  that  it  does 
not  pay,  in  the  long 
run,  to  buy  any 
other  kind.  So  the 
vast  majority  of 
them  are  willing  to 
pay  a  premium  for 
a  product  that  they 
can  depend  upon. 
If  you  wish  to  un- 
derstand the  mo- 
tives back  of  the 
city  buyer,  and  to 
cash  in  on  it,  you 
have  the  whole 
story  here  in  a  nut- 
shell. These  are  fundamental  economic  factors  that  ap- 
ply in  the  determination  of  commodity  sale  prices  and 
those  who  succeed  in  securing  the  highest  prices  for 
their  products  are  the  ones  who  recognize  these  factors 
and  eater  to  them. 

Many  Middle  Western  poultry  raisers  are  shipping 
market  eggs  to  the  New  York  City  markets  and  often- 
times receive  a  premium  over  existing  market  prices 


Fig. 


66 — Carefully    Selected    Eggs    Ready    for 
Shipment  to  New  York  Market. 


208  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

ranging  from  5  cents  to  15  cents  per  dozen.  The  reason 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  they  grade  their  eggs  to  size 
and  weight,  primarily,  and  sometimes  they  pack  their 
eggs  in  their  own  cartons.  There  is  no  other  "secret" 
to  the  matter. 

An  egg  may  be  an  egg  and  it  may  take  only  12  to 
make  a  dozen,  but  for  all  that  there  is  a  difference.  That 
difference  may  not  appear  to  be  worth  the  "bother"  to 
many  busy  people,  but  it  is  just  such  little  differences  as 
this  that  define  the  maximum  success.  The  egg  farm- 
er has  but  to  take  a  leaf  from  the  experience  of  the 
business  man  in  order  to  profit.  The  package  idea  is 
well  established  in  all  lines  of  business.  From  time  im- 
memorial we  have  had  rolled  oats,  gingersnaps,  prunes, 
raisins,  dried  fruits,  oyster  crackers  and  candy  in  bulk. 
Practically  all  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in  our 
merchandising  in  half  a  century  has  been  in  the  dis- 
carding of  bulk  commodities  and  the  adoption  of  pack- 
age commodities,  followed  by  the  advertising  of  these 
brands. 

The  package  idea  has  been  applied  to  the  marketing 
of  eggs  for  some  years,  but  it  is  only  recently  that  in- 
dividual egg  farmers  have  awakened  to  the  great  op- 
portunity and  commenced  to  do  it  themselves.  For 
years,  it  has  been  done  by  the  packers  and  the  egg  deal- 
ers, merely  because  it  increased  the  profit  to  be  gained 
from  the  eggs  they  handled  to  place  them  in  cartons 
containing  some  such  caption  as  "Extra  Fancy," 
"Strictly  Fresh,"  or  "Selected  Eggs." 

Grading  Eggs 

One  dirty  egg  in  a  dozen,  or  one  embryo  chick,  will 
absolutely  "spoil"  that  dozen  eggs  in  the  mind  of  the 
average  buyer  and  cause  the  said  buyer  to  return  them 
to  the  storekeeper.     The  United  States  Department  of 


Marketing  Farm  Eggs  Successfully  209 

Agriculture  has  said  that  the  preventable  loss  suffered 
by  egg  farmers  throughout  the  country  is  17  per  cent 
of  all  eggs  sent  to  market.  This  runs  into  millions  of 
doUars  in  each  state  each  year.  Seven  and  one-half  per 
cent  of  this  loss  comes  through  a  failure  to  produce  in- 
fertile eggs  for  market,  resulting  in  partially  developed 
chicks  being  formed  through  the  eggs  becoming  heated, 
or  from  rotten  eggs.  An  infertile  egg  is  an  egg  having 
no  male  germ  and  they  can  be  produced  and  practically 
all  of  this  loss  eliminated  by  simply  removing  cock 
birds  from  the  laying  houses. 

Two  per  cent  of  this  loss  comes  from  dirty  eggs.  Clean 
eggs  can  be  produced  by  keeping  the  nests  clean,  keep- 
ing the  dropping  boards  and  litter  clean  and  confining 
the  laying  hens  to  good  houses  so  that  they  do  not  have 
range  in  wet  weather.  A  hen  with  wet  feet  or  one  lay- 
ing in  a  dirty  nest  wiU  result  in  dirty  eggs.  You  can- 
not "slip  one  over"  by  washing  the  eggs,  either.  That 
does  not  fool  the  candler  or  the  trade  and  it  results  in 
the  more  rapid  deterioration  of  the  egg. 

The  five  grades  of  eggs  most  commonly  made  by  egg 
dealers  are  as  foUows: 

1.  Extra  Selects. — Eggs  in  this  class  must  be  strictly 
fresh,  large  in  size,  clean  shelled,  free  from  stains  and 
unwashed,  contents  full  and  whites  strong.  This  grade 
always  brings  a  premium,  ranging  all  the  way  from  2i/2 
cents  per  dozen  upward. 

2.  Firsts. — Eggs  in  this  grade  must  be  reasonably 
fresh,  large  in  size,  clean  shelled,  but  not  as  fuU  and 
fresh  as  the  extra  selects. 

3.  Trade. — Eggs  of  this  grade  are  put  up  to  meet  the 
trade  demands  and  are  usually  for  immediate  consump- 
tion. They  may  be  nearly  equal  to  firsts  in  quality,  but 
are  smaller  in  size  and  oftentimes  are  slightly  soiled. 


210  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

dirty  and  stained,  but  for  immediate  use  they  are  as 
good  as  firsts.  They  generally  sell  for  less  than  firsts, 
and  about  the  price  of  current  receipts. 

4.  Seconds. — This  grade  includes  eggs  that  will  not 
come  in  any  of  the  better  grades.  They  are  composed 
generally  of  stale,  shrunken  eggs,  eggs  small  in  size, 
slightly  heated  and  slightly  soiled.  They  must  be  edible, 
free  from  rots,  spots  or  bad  eggs.  The  price  of  seconds 
is  usually  2  cents  or  more  below  that  of  trade  eggs. 

5.  Dirties. — This  grade  includes  eggs  that  are  too 
dirty,  soiled  and  stained  to  come  in  any  of  the  above 
grades.  Washed  eggs  are  usually  placed  with  dirties, 
because  they  deteriorate  about  as  rapidly  as  dirty  eggs. 
Generally  the  price  for  dirties  is  about  the  same  as  that 
of  seconds,  varying  with  the  demand. 

Eggs  graded  for  the  best  grade  you  have  should  weigh 
not  less  than  24  ounces  to  the  dozen;  if  they  can  be 
graded  higher,  it  will  pay  to  do  so.  Oftentimes,  where 
yearling  Leghorns  or  Minorcas  are  carried,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  grade  the  best  eggs  to  26  to  30  ounces  to  the 
dozen  and  it  pays  to  grade  them  as  high  as  possible. 
Pullet  eggs  should  be  graded  to  24  ounces  and  sold  as 
such. 

Private  Trade 

Where  the  egg  farmer  lives  near  a  large  city  it  is 
often  desirable  to  develop  an  outlet  for  the  eggs  through 
private  channels.  The  average  farmer,  however,  gen- 
erally objects  to  running  a  delivery  system  or  to  ped- 
dling his  product  from  house  to  house.  This  must,  of 
course,  be  settled  by  the  individual  but  many  have  found 
a  profit  in  it  and  have  even  charged  five  to  ten  cents 
above  market  prices  for  their  eggs  and  then  been  unable 
to  supply  the  demand. 


Marketing  Farm  Eggs  Successfully 


211 


This  sort  of  work  calls  for  more  than  usual  sales  and 
advertising  ability,  but  it  is  not  beyond  the  realm  of 
possibility.  It  is  not  hard  to  popularize  your  brand  of 
eggs,  if  you  pack  them  in  your  own  cartons,  and  then 
advertise  them  properly,  dwelling  upon  the  purity  of 
your  product,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  average 
farm  Qg^  produced  by  hens  having  the  run  of  manure 
heaps  and  feed  lots. 

Hugo  Anderson,  the  Minnesota  poultryman  we  have 
mentioned,  packs  his  eggs  in  cartons,  carefully  grading 
them  to  size  and  weight  and  disposes  of  his  entire  prod- 


!  Fresh  Poultry  <Lnir  bpeciuny  i 


Fig    67 — Grade  the  Eggs  Carefully  for  the  Best  Price. 


uet  to  a  Duluth  department  store.  His  pullet  eggs  are 
packed  in  special  cartons  and  sold  at  five  cents  per 
dozen  less  than  his  best  grade.  He  has  more  of  a  de- 
mand than  he  can  supply.  Some  such  arrangement 
might  be  worked  out  in  almost  any  city,  but  one  must 
have  a  sufficient  volume  to  be  able  to  furnish  some  eggs 
all  the  time,  as  these  stores  do  not  care  to  cater  to  a 


212  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

certain  trade  and  then  be  unable  to  supply  the  demand 
at  least  partially.  Mr.  Andei'son  maintains  a  flock  of 
3,500  layers  on  his  plant,  so  one  can  get  some  idea  of 
the  demand  he  has  developed. 

Advertising 

No  advertising  of  market  eggs  is  necessary  unless  you 
are  catering  to  the  private  trade  and  are  anxious  to 
build  up  more  of  a  demand  for  your  product  among 
retail  customers.  The  best  and  most  economical  way 
in  which  this  can  be  done  is  through  direct-by-mail 
methods,  such  as  letters,  circulars  and  descriptive  fold- 
ers addressed  direct  to  the  prospects. 

Fresh  eggs  are  something  that  every  city  householder 
is  looking  for  and  if  you  address  such  matter  direct  to 
them  telling  how  they  can  get  in  touch  with  you  to  se- 
cure your  packaged  and  guaranteed  product,  you  will 
have  very  little  advertising  to  do  in  order  to  secure  suffi- 
cient demand.  This  is  especially  true  if  you  are  willing 
to  establish  a  delivery  system  and  bring  the  eggs  in  reg- 
ularly, at  least  once  each  week. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
How  to  Sell  and  Advertise  Stock 


Surplus    Stock — How   to   Pack   and    Ship    Hatching    Eggs — 
Where  and  How  to  Advertise 

Those  who  are  producing  market  eggs  and  are  build- 
ing up  a  flock  of  high  producers  through  intelligent 
breeding  are  soon  going  to  have  the  flock  at  such  a  point 
that  it  Tvill  not  be  profitable  to  sell  the  surplus  cock- 
erels on  the  general  market  for  broilers.  The  higher  the 
records  made  by  the  layers,  especially  where  pedigree 
breeding  is  done  and  trapnesting  carefully  followed, 
the  more  valuable  the  surplus  birds  are  going  to  be  for 
sale  as  breeders. 

The  yearling  hens  which  have  served  for  layers  or 
breeders  can  be  more  profitably  marketed  for  breeding 
birds  than  they  can  be  realized  on  as  market  fowl.  It 
is  not  out  of  the  ordinary  at  all  to  dispose  of  all  yearling 
hens  in  this  way  for  not  less  than  two  dollars  each,  rang- 
ing on  up  according  to  the  reputation  of  the  flock  and 
the  breeder. 

During  the  normal  hatching  season  in  the  spring 
months,  it  will  be  possible  for  the  farmer  to  market  his 
eggs  in  the  form  of  hatching  eggs  or  baby  chicks  at  sev- 
eral times  the  price  they  normally  bring  at  this  sea- 
son for  market  purposes.  This  tends  to  secure,  the  year 
around,  the  maximum  price  for  the  product  and,  there- 
fore, to  insure  the  highest  profit  from  the  operations. 


214  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

But  in  order  to  do  this  it  is  necessary  that  the  public 
be  acquainted  with  what  you  are  doing.  You  are  go- 
ing to  have  to  create  a  demand  for  your  stock  and  hatch- 
ing eggs  through  careful  advertising  and  through  care- 
ful breeding  in  building  up  a  strain  that  will  do  well 
in  the  hands  of  customers.  After  all,  the  best  advertise- 
ment is  the  satisfied  customer. 

One  cannot  build  a  business  of  this  sort  over  night. 
It  comes  slowly  but  the  great  advantage  of  advertising 
is  in  its  cmnulative  effect — it  constantly  piles  up  a  repu- 
tation for  you  which,  if  backed  up  by  the  right  kind  of 
goods,  will  continue  to  work  for  you  day  and  night  as 
long  as  you  are  in  business.  And,  as  a  general  rule,  a 
man  will  be  forced  into  the  breeding  business  more  and 
more  as  time  goes  on,  even  though  he  might  have  started 
out  originally  with  the  idea  that  he  would  confine  his 
attention  exclusively  to  the  production  of  eggs  for  mar- 
ket. But  profit  attracts,  almost  compels  one,  to  move 
in  this  direction  in  order  to  secure  proper  outlet  for  his 
surplus  stock. 

A  Minnesota  farmer  who  has  since  become  one  of  the 
largest  utility  Leghorn  breeders  in  the  country  told  the 
author  of  his  early  experiences  along  this  line.  "I 
started  out  with  the  intention  of  producing  eggs  for 
market,"  he  said.  "I  felt  that  I  did  not  care  to  go  into 
the  breeding  business  or  to  sell  hatching  eggs  or  stock 
because  I  didn't  want  to  advertise  and  carry  on  a  cor- 
respondence with  prospective  customers. 

"But  I  was  forced  to  bigger  things  and  have  con- 
stantly been  forced  to  bigger  things.  Today,  I  am  car- 
rying on  a  general  business  in  which  I  supply  a  trade- 
marked  egg  to  the  general  market  in  the  neighboring 
city;  I  sell  thousands  of  my  surplus  young  cockerels 
every  year  for  breeding  purposes,  and  I  market  an  aver- 
age of  50,000  baby  chicks  each  season,  shipping  them 


How  to  Sell  and  Advertise  Stock 


215 


all  over  the  Union.  I  also  raise  12-week 's-old  pullets 
for  sale  in  midsummer.  Last  year  I  sold  1,000  of  these 
at  one  swipe  to  another  poultryman  for  $2.50  each  cash ! 
"You  see,  you  can't  keep  from  going  in  this  direction 
when  it  is  the  one  way  that  offers  a  profit  for  the  sur- 
plus stock.  No  man  can  make  a  profit  selling  stock  on 
the  general  market  and  it  hasn't  been  profitable  for  two 
decades." 


How  TO  Pack  and  Ship  Hatching  Eggs 

One  of  the  problems  confronting  the  beginner  in  pure- 
bred poultry  work  is  the  matter  of  properly  packing 
hatching  eggs  for  shipment.  There  are  any  number  of 
containers  advertised  on  the  market,  and  any  number  of 
plans  proposed  by  those 
having  more  or  less  experi- 
ence in  this  work.  The  be- 
ginner, as  a  rule,  follows 
the  course  of  least  resist- 
ance and  often  finds  that 
he  has  accepted  poor  ad- 
vice, which  has  caused  him 
to  sustain  severe  losses,  the 
chief  one  of  which  is  the 
loss  of  prestige  among  his  customers. 

Eggs  that  are  shipped  to  various  parts  of  the  country 
for  hatching  purposes  must  be  packed  and  handled  in 
the  most  careful  manner  in  order  to  insure  the  maxi- 
mum results.  Rough  handling  or  breakage  often  seri- 
ously affects  the  hatching  qualities  of  the  eggs.  Hatch- 
ing eggs  may  be  shipped  at  the  present  time  either  by 
express  or  by  parcel  post,  but  in  either  instance  the 
amount  of  rough  handling  which  is  bound  to  occur  in 
transit  is  so  great  that  the  shipper  must  use  every  pos- 
sible precaution  in  packing  to  be  sure  that  the  eggs  are 


Fig.    68 — Roadside    Signs    Will    At- 
tract  Attention  to   Your   Farm. 


216  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

properly  insulated  in  order  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the 
effect  of  such  treatment. 

We  have  found  in  discussion  with  a  number  of  prac- 
tical poultry  men  and  women  of  the  Middle  West  that 
the  commonly  accepted  method  of  packing  hatching 
eggs,  one  which  is  sure  to  give  the  best  results,  is  to  use 
large  baskets  similar  to  ordinary  bushel  baskets  for  con- 
tainers. These  baskets  come  in  various  sizes  and  may  be 
purchased  from  certain  manufacturers  for  the  purpose 
of  shipping  hatching  eggs.  The  sizes  ordinarily  run 
from  two  settings  or  30  eggs  up  to  several  hundred. 

One  practical  poultry  woman,  who  ships  eggs  every 
season,  informs  us  that  she  has  found  the  basket  con- 
tainer to  be  the  best  from 
her  standpoint.  She  wraps 
the  eggs  in  a  piece  of  pa- 
per, and  then  uses  excelsior 
around  these  eggs  so  that 
a  perfect  ball  is  formed.  A 
layer  of  excelsior  is  placed 
on  the  bottom  of  the  basket 

Fi..    69_One^  Way ^of^  Advertising       ^^^    ^^^    ^^^^    ^^^^    ^^^^^^^ 

are  packed  in  the  center,  a 
wall  of  excelsior  being  around  the  side  of  the  basket 
and  over  the  top.  The  best  cover  for  this  basket  is  a 
strip  of  burlap  sewed  into  the  basket  frame  or  some 
other  kind  of  heavy  cloth.  Some  breeders,  however, 
have  used  ordinary  slated  covers  nailed  fast  to  the  bas- 
ket with  good  results. 

This  experience  has  been  borne  out  by  a  number  of 
other  breeders  and  seems  to  be  worthy  of  passing  on  to 
our  readers.  Another  very  good  way  to  pack  eggs  is 
to  use  heavy  cardboard  containers  or  small  boxes,  suffi- 
ciently large  in  which  to  pack  the  eggs  shipped  and  still 


BABYCHICKS 
EGOS 

FOR  MATCHING 


How  to  Sell  and  Advertise  Stock 


!17 


BABYCfllCKS 


afford  room  for  proper  insulation.  One  of  the  best 
packed  containers  of  hatching  eggs  we  ever  received 
came  from  an  eastern  breeder  in  one  of  these  cardboard 
boxes  or  containers.  The  eggs  were  packed  in  fine  saw- 
dust and  chaff.  A  layer  of  this  material  was  placed  in 
the  bottom  on  top  of  several  thicknesses  of  newspapers. 
Then  came  the  eggs,  which  were  all  carefully  surrounded 
by  sufficient  sawdust  and  chaff  to  prevent  them  touch- 
ing each  other.  A 
layer  was  placed 
across  the  top  and 
then  several  thick- 
nesses of  newspa- 
per to  make  the  en- 
tire package  snug 
and  unsusceptible 
to  shocks  or  jolts. 

Another  s  h  i  p  - 
ment  of  eggs  com- 
ing from  a  Michi- 
gan breeder,  came  in  an  ordinary  market  basket,  which 
was  insulated  with  long  grass.  The  grass  was  used  in  the 
same  manner  that  the  farm  woman  mentioned  uses  ex- 
celsior or  the  eastern  breeder  mentioned  used  sawdust 
and  chaff. 

The  exact  type  of  packing  material  is  not  essential, 
so  much  as  is  the  manner  in  which  the  package  is  packed. 
Any  of  these  materials  will  afford  excellent  results,  pro- 
vided the  shipper  is  very  careful  to  see  that  the  eggs 
are  packed  in  a  careful  manner  and  so  that  it  is  impos- 
sible for  them  to  "give"  or  jostle  against  each  other. 

The  greatest  caution  should  be  used  in  securing  con- 
tainers large  enough  to  properly  handle  the  eggs.  Most 
people  come  to  grief  because  they  use  containers  too 
small  to  afford  propei-  insulation.     The  container  used 


Fig. 


70 — An     Electrically-lighted     Sign     Does 
Service   at   Night. 


218  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

should  be  at  least  50  per  cent  larger  than  the  size  gen- 
erally advertised  to  hold  the  eggs. 

Where  and  How  to  Advertise 

Where  and  how  shall  I  advertise  my  surplus  stock 
and  eggs?  is  a  question  commonly  asked  by  the  begin- 
ner. This  is  a  question  that  can  seldom  be  answered 
satisfactorily  for  the  reason  that  one  kind  of  advertis- 
ing may  produce  a  good  business  for  one  man  and  be 
an  utter  failure  for  another.  And,  again,  one  medium 
or  paper  in  which  the  advertisement  is  run,  may  pro- 
duce all  the  business  one  breeder  can  handle  and  not 
bring  a  single  dollar  to  another  breeder.  There  are 
many  considerations  entering  into  the  business  of  ad- 
vertising which  can  mfluence  the  results.  But  there  is 
one  rule  which  should  ever  be  followed  and  that  is  that 
persistency  is  the  best  way  to  succeed  at  advertising. 
There  is  no  profit  in  running  one  ad  and  then  sitting 
down  to  wait  for  the  business.  Competition  is  too  keen 
in  this  day  and  age  for  success  to  come  that  easily. 
John  Wanamaker,  the  great  merchant  prince,  who  ought 
to  know  something  about  advertising,  once  said  that  it 
is  the  last  business  in  the  world  in  which  the  quitter 
should  indulge. 

Where  shall  I  advertise?  That  is,  indeed,  a  perti- 
nent question,  with  all  this  mass  of  advertising  media 
offered.  The  very  first  thought  to  keep  in  mind,  in  se- 
lecting a  paper  in  which  to  advertise,  is  the  average  type 
of  reader  taking  that  paper.  Are  these  readers  likely 
to  be  prospects  for  what  you  have  to  sell  ?  If  not,  that 
paper  is  going  to  be  a  costly  medium  in  which  to  run 
your  advertisement  for  it  will  not  secure  the  sort  of 
reader  distribution  that  can  reasonably  be  counted  upon 
to  bring  you  a  fair  amount  of  business.   Having  decided 


How  to  Sell  and  Advertise  Stock  219 

upon  a  paper  which  appeals  to  the  class  of  buyers 
you  think  most  likely  to  be  interested  in  your  product, 
the  next  point  to  consider  is  the  circulation  or  the  num- 
ber of  readers  which  the  paper  has  in  its  field.  If  it 
does  not  have  a  fair  standing  or  prestige  in  its  field, 
then  it  is  likely  to  prove  an  unprofitable  advertising 
medium  because  the  low  circulation  indicates  that  there 
is  a  low  reader-interest  in  the  paper.  If  not,  there 
would  be  more  people  reading  and  discussing  that  paper. 

You  want  to  secure,  then,  circulation  in  the  field  to 
which  you  wish  to  appeal  and  to  secure  as  much  of  it 
as  possible.  If  any  one  paper  stands  out  preeminent  in 
reader-interest  that  is  a  good  paper  in  which  to  adver- 
tise, because  people  are  not  merely  "taking"  it,  they 
are  reading  it. 

State  farm  papers  should  be  the  first  step  in  the  ad- 
vertising chain  forged  by  the  farmer-poultryman,  and 
a  careful  inquiry  among  those  who  have  succeeded  in 
this  direction  reveals,  almost  without  excbj^tion,  that 
that  is  just  the  way  they  worked  it  out  in  their  own 
practical  experience.  And,  remember  to  pick  the  papers 
with  the  best  circulations  whenever  possible. 

Poultry  journals  and  breed  journals  arc  also  good 
mediums,  but  one  often  has  to  spend  some  good  money 
before  he  discovers  the  individual  journals  which  are 
the  best  "pullers"  of  business.  There  is  one  pretty 
good  indication  which  can  be  kept  in  mind  at  all  times 
and  that  is  the  volume  of  advertising  which  these  papers 
carry.  The  papers  which  carry  the  best  volume  of  ad- 
vertising indicate  on  their  face  the  ones  which  are  "pull- 
ing ' '  the  best  for  the  other  breeders.  But,  when  you  in- 
sert your  copy  in  those  papers  you  are  going  to  have  to 
make  your  advertisement  especially  distinctive  or  use 
more  space  than  usual  in  order  to  make  it  attract  atten- 


220  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

tion  out  of  all  the  others  competing  with  it  for  this 
honor.    But  it  will  be  worth  while. 

Keep  a  careful  list  of  the  names  and  addresses  of  all 
people  who  write  you  each  year  and  ask  for  your  catalog 
or  other  advertising  literature.  These  form  a  valuable 
list  of  prospective  customers  and  should  not  be  lost 
track  of;  you  have  paid  valuable  money  to  secure  these 
names  and  they  should  be  kept  on  the  list  until  it  seems 
that  they  cannot  be  interested  in  your  proposition. 

Be  very  sure  to  keep  a  list  of  people  who  have  pur- 
chased goods  and  stock  from  you.  These  are  the  rocks 
upon  which  you  are  to  erect  your  business  structure  and 
they  should  be  good  for  repeat  orders  year  after  year 
if  you  have  treated  them  fairly  and  sold  them  a  quality 
product,  and  not  overcharged  them. 

How  to  advertise  presents  a  question  that  will  depend 
entirely  upon  the  amount  of  stock  or  eggs  you  have  to 
sell.  If  the  amount  is  limited,  you  will  not  be  able  to 
afford  very  much  advertising  space  in  marketing  them. 
Where  you  are  running  a  large  plant  and  have  a  large 
volume  to  turn  over,  then  more  space  will  be  necessary 
to  create  the  demand  so  vital  to  a  marketing  of  the  prod- 
uct. This  is  a  question  which  every  individual  breeder 
or  farmer  will  have  to  settle  himself,  giving  due  refer- 
ence to  the  products  he  has  to  sell. 

Unquestionably,  the  most  effective  copy  is  that  which 
occupies  a  space  sufficiently  large  as  to  attract  the  maxi- 
mum attention.  In  the  average  paper  this  will  be  noth- 
ing short  of  a  full-page  advertisement,  but  since  this 
is  out  of  the  question  in  selling  poultry  products,  we 
need  not  lose  sight  of  the  principle  and  discard  it  en- 
tirely.   It  still  holds  true. 

Let  us  examine  a  few  actual  advertisements  and  note 
the  difference  they  make  in  the  attention  aroused  in  the 
casual  reader's  eye  as  he  glances  through  the  paper. 


How  to  Sell  and  Advertise  Stock  221 

This  advertisement  occupies  "three  lines"   in  the 
classified  section: 


EXTRA  CHOICE  S.  C.  Brown  Leghorn  ckla.  ;„large 

size    and   nice   dark    color;    $1.25    each.    6    lor 

$7.50,   $14   doz.      (Kame  and  address.) 

This  is  a  "four  line"  advertisement  in  the  same  paper. 
Note  the  difference  the  extra  line  makes  in  the  attention 
aroused : 


S.    O.    WmXE    LEGHORN    COCKERELS— Apnl 

hatched  only;  of  Ferris  trap-nested  265  to  300- 

eee  strain;  $2   each:   $1.50  each  for  six  or  mor». 

(Name  and  address.) 

This  is  a  "one  inch"  advertisement  from  the  same 
page.  Note  how  the  extra  space  makes  possible  a  differ- 
ent type  arrangement  which  attracts  several  times  the 
attention  of  the  advertisement  above: 

English,  Barron 
S.  C.  W.  Leghorns 

DIRECT  DESCENDANTS^  from  imported  stock; 
well  developed  with  quaUty  of  show  birds.  Our 
herds  have  been  tested  and  developed  untU  we  hatch 
our  stock  from  the  strongest  of  producers.  Choice 
cockerels,  $2.25  each;  $2  in  lots  of  six  or  more; 
$22  per  doz.  A  few  special  choice  show  birds,  $3. 
(Name  and  address.)     

This  is  a  "two  inch"  adverfisement  in  which  the  out- 
standing offering  the  breeder  has  to  make,  namely 
"hatching  eggs"  and  the  breed,  is  most  prominently  dis- 
played. Next  in  the  range  of  the  eye  is  the  name  and 
address,  which,  for  obvious  reasons  has  been  omitted: 


American 

S.  C.  W.  Leghorn 

Hatching  E^^s 


from  my  breeding  pena  of  trap-nest  pedigreed 
stock  of  high-scoring,  high-producing  birds.  Prices 
reasonable.  Place  your  orders  early.  Also  eggs 
from    range   stock.       (Name  and   address.) 


222  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

A  few  general  suggestions  as  to  what  should  enter  into 
a  good  piece  of  advertising  copy,  regardless  of  the  space 
it  occupies,  may  be  of  service.  Of  course,  it  should 
be  realized  that  certain  things  can  best  be  accomplished 
where  there  is  sufficient  space  at  the  disposal  of  the  copy 
writer  to  allow  a  measure  of  freedom  not  generally 
possible  with  small  spaces. 

H.  Cecil  Sheppard,  a  specialty  breeder  of  Aneonas, 
who  is  possibly  the  most  conspicuously  successful  adver- 
tiser of  all  poultrymen,  has  a  graphic  way  of  saying 
just  what  one  should  attempt  to  do  with  his  advertis- 
ing copy.  As  Mr.  Sheppard  puts  it,  there  are  just  four 
"L's"  in  the  successful  advertisement.     They  are: 

Make  'em  LOOK. 
Make  'em  LIKE. 
Make  'em  LEARN. 
LAND  'em. 

There  is  a  world  of  sales  and  advertising  wisdom 
tucked  up  in  these  short,  terse  statements.  They  are 
the  meat  of  the  experience  gained  by  Mr.  Shppard  in 
nearly  20  years  of  business  effort.  The  man  who  origi- 
nated them  is  selling  $100,000  worth  of  pure-bred  poul- 
try each  year,  as  he  has  stated  over  his  own  signature, 
and  this  is  but  one  standard  by  which  to  judge  the  re- 
sults won  by  advertising  properly  done,  for  one  man. 
A  few  years  ago  he  was  traveling  salesman  for  a  leather 
house. 

Advertising  cannot  build  a  business  for  the  man  who 
has  nothing  worth  while  to  offer.  This  means  that  there 
must  be  a  service  in  the  goods  you  have  to  sell,  if  perma- 
nent success  is  to  be  won.  Any  business  deal  which  does 
not  benefit  both  parties  is  immoral,  and  if  you  are  not 
giving  your  customers  full  value  for  their  money  and 


How  to  Sell  and  Advertise  Stock  223 

a  dependable  article,  all  the  advertising  in  the  world 
will  not  save  your  business  from  the  dry-rot  of  decay 
and  failure. 

There  is  an  advantage  in  selecting  a  trade-mark  for 
your  product  and  in  having  it  registered  in  the  U.  S. 
Patent  Office.  You  can  then  give  your  goods  a  name  or 
mark  which  you  alone  will  be  permitted  to  use,  and 
which,  in  time,  will  set  your  goods  apart  from  those  of 
your  competitors.  And  this  is  just  as  valuable  to  the 
utility  or  market  egg  breeder  as  to  the  fancier. 

A  few  of  the  trade  names  copyrighted  and  used  by 
different  market  egg  breeders  are  as  follows:  ''Yester- 
laid,"  ''Egglantine  Farms,"  "New-Laid  Eggs,"  "Just- 
Laid,"  "Egg-A-Day  Strain,"  "Sunny  Crest  Farm." 

In  signing  advertisements  or  determining  how  you 
shall  conduct  the  business  it  is  much  better  to  do  busi- 
ness as  an  individual,  using  your  own  name,  than  it  is 
to  hide  behind  a  firm  name  that  does  not  disclose  an 
identity.  It  is  harder  to  keep  in  mind  the  "Maple 
Grove  Poultry  Farm"  than  it  is  John  A.  Smith.  Peo- 
ple remember  and  like  to  deal  with  a  person  more  than 
they  remember  or  like  to  deal  with  a  firm  name.  If 
you  are  a  woman,  do  not  hesitate  to  do  business  under 
"Mrs.  Julia  Brown"  or  whatever  your  name  is,  rather 
than  picking  out  some  common  farm  name  which  some 
other  person  may  take  a  notion  to  use.  No  one  can  ap- 
propriate your  name  or  trade  upon  it  and  the  good  will 
and  prestige  you  build  up  in  your  advertising  will  flow 
all  to  you.  And,  as  a  woman,  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that 
thousands  of  other  farm  women  are  going  to  be  attracted 
to  you  and  send  you  their  business  largely  because  they 
feel  on  a  common  footing  with  you.  Some  of  the  best 
specialty  poultry  breeders  in  the  world  are  women.  One 
of  the  foremost  poultry  breeders  in  England  is  a  woman 
and  her  birds  are  shipped  aU  over  the  world. 


224  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

Advertising  is  a  great  and  powerful  arm  of  modern 
commercial  life.  It  has  brought  our  entire  business, 
and,  therefore,  our  entire  civilization,  to  the  present 
high  state  of  efficiency  which  it  enjoys.  It  must  be  used 
if  any  great  success  is  to  be  made  in  the  poultry  busi- 
ness. In  fact,  that  business  can  never  get  out  of  the 
local  class  without  the  aid  of  advertising.  This  means 
that  the  science  of  selling  by  the  printed  page  must  have 
attention  from  the  farmer  and  poultryman  who  has  sur- 
plus stock  to  market.  He  will  find  it  almost  as  fasci- 
nating a  study  as  his  work  in  the  breeding  pen. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
Poultry  Diseases  and  Remedies 

It  is  very  easy  to  acquire  the  belief,  once  disease 
breaks  out  in  the  flock,  that  fowls  are  not  naturally 
hardy  and  are,  in  fact,  very  susceptible  to  disease  and 
contagion.  A  more  erroneous  opinion  could  not  be 
held  in  regard  to  the  hardiness  of  poultry.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  the  losses  from  disease  the  country  over  is 
not  very  great,  although  in  localities  outbreaks  may 
assume  the  form  of  epidemics  at  times  due  to  the  long 
sapping  of  vitality  through  neglect,  improper  care  or 
contagion. 

Fowls  subjected  to  disease  attacks  are  not  profitable 
in  any  sense  of  the  term.  Too  much  of  the  nervous 
energy  of  the  fowl  and  too  much  of  the  ration  goes  to 
fighting  these  pests  and  organisms  that  ought  to  be  go- 
ing to  the  maintenance  of  flesh  and  the  formation  of 
eggs.  A  fowl  afflicted  with  vermin,  for  instance,  has 
its  hands  full  and  can  be  expected  to  do  little  else  than 
hold  its  own. 

A  careful  survey  of  poultry  diseases  has  been  made 
and  it  appears  that  practically  every  disease,  an  ex- 
ception is  found  in  only  two  or  three  instances,  is  caused 
through  contagion  rather  than  through  any  other  source. 
This  fact  will  afford  a  great  tool  to  the  poultryman  or 
farmer  in  fighting  disease,  if  he  but  keep  it  in  mind.  It 
means  that  if  diseased  fowls  are  destroyed  as  soon  as 
their  condition  becomes  apparent,  that  if  every  precau- 
tion is  used  to  prevent  the  spread  of  infection  even 
where  it  is  not  apparent,  by  practicing  the  utmost  clean- 
liness and  by  constantly  keeping  the  premises  clean  and 

15 


226  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

disinfected,  the  likelihood  of  disease  ever  becoming  seri- 
ous in  the  flock  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  It  is  where 
things  are  allowed  to  drag  along  that  conditions  get 
in  a  bad  way — most  of  the  flock  has  been  infected  before 
one  takes  the  matter  in  hand. 

The  great  object  in  acquainting  yourself  with  the 
various  common  poultry  diseases  is  not  to  learn  how 
to  "doctor"  poultry.  That  method  of  treatment  never 
was  and  probably  never  will  be  satisfactory.  One  can- 
not cure  poultry  diseases,  in  the  majority  of  instances, 
in  the  sense  that  a  complete  recovery  can  be  secured. 
In  many  instances  a  recovered  diseased  fowl  is  but  a 
link  in  the  breeding  cycle  of  the  germ  which  starts  a 
new  source  of  infection  and  movement  that  transmits 
the  disease,  either  by  contagion  or  through  breeding,  to 
another  generation.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  case 
of  white  diarrhoea.  It  should  be  laid  down  as  an  ab- 
solute rule  in  the  poultry  yard  that  all  fowls  appar- 
ently cured  from  disease,  or  all  fowls  exposed  to  a  dis- 
ease, should  not  be  used  in  the  breeding  yards.  That 
is  one  sure  way  of  breaking  the  life  cycle  of  these  deadly 
germ  diseases. 

The  object  of  getting  acquainted  with  the  different 
poultry  diseases  is  to  discover  what  causes  them  and 
then  to  go  about  the  work  of  preventing  them.  Preven- 
tion is  always  more  satisfactory  than  cure,  and  will  yield 
considerably  more  in  dividends. 

The  very  first  point  in  the  prevention  of  poultry  dis- 
ease is  to  start  with  the  right  kind  of  stock,  free  from 
disease  of  any  kind  or  parasites,  and  keep  these  fowls 
in  surroundings  that  are  likewise  free  from  these  ene- 
mies. If  the  housing  conditions  are  correct  and  along 
principles  or  plans  making  it  easy  to  keep  them  in  a 
sanitary  condition,  the  chances  of  disease  getting  a  foot- 
hold in  your  flock  will  be  extremely  remote.    One  of  the 


Poultry  Diseases  and  Remedies  227 

compuratively  recent  innovations  in  the  poultry  world 
is  the  attempt  being  made  in  some  states  to  place  all 
hatcheries  and  flocks  from  which  breeding  stock,  hatch- 
ing eggs  or  baby  chicks  are  sold  under  the  license  sys- 
tem in  order  that  they  may  be  inspected  for  disease  and 
any  flock  found  suffering  from  white  diarrhoea  or  other 
contagious  disease  will  not  be  permitted  to  do  business. 

The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  has  this  to  say 
about  the  prevention  of  disease  in  the  poultry  yard: 

* '  By  beginning  in  this  manner  a  flock  may  be  obtained 
which  is  practically  free  from  disease  germs  and  para- 
sites, but  in  order  to  keep  it  in  this  condition  the  prem- 
ises must  be  frequently  cleaned  and  occasionally  disin- 
fected. ^  There  are  a  number  of  reasons  for  this.  First, 
there  are  certain  germs  generally  present  in  the  intes- 
tines of  healthy  fowls  that  are  scattered  with  the  manure, 
and  which,  when  they  are  permitted  to  accumulate  and 
become  very  numerous,  may  cause  outbreaks  of  disease ; 
second,  the  germs  of  contagious  diseases  may  be  brought 
to  the  poultry  yard  by  pigeons  or  other  birds  which  fly 
from  one  poultry  yard  to  another,  or  by  mice  or  rats; 
third,  it  is  seldom  that  ground  is  obtained  that  is  free 
from  infection  with  the  eggs  of  parasitic  worms  and 
the  spores  of  disease  producing  microbes.  To  keep  these 
germs  and  parasites  from  developing  and  increasing 
their  numbers  to  a  dangerous  extent  the  houses  should 
be  kept  clean,  the  drinking  fountains  and  feed  troughs 
should  be  washed  every  week  with  boiling  water  or  other 
disinfectant,  and,  if  any  lice  or  mites  are  found  on  the 
birds  or  in  their  houses,  the  roosts  and  adjoining  parts 
of  the  walls  should  be  painted  with  a  mixture  of  kero- 
sene, 1  quart,  and  crude  carbolic  acid  or  crude  cresol, 
1  teacup  (1  gill).  Or  the  house  may  be  whitewashed 
with  freshly  slaked  lime  or  sprayed  with  kerosene  emul- 
sion.   The  fowls  should  be  dusted  with  lice  powder." 


228  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

Good  disinfectants  should  be  regularly  and  thoroughly- 
used  throughout  the  year.  They  can  be  purchased  at 
any  poultry  supply  house,  drug  or  feed  store  and  should 
be  on  hand  all  the  time.  One  can  hardly  overdo 
the  work  of  keeping  the  buildings,  premises  and  appli- 
ances sanitary  and  clean.  This  is  of  special  importance 
in  the  seasons  when  disease  and  parasites  are  most  apt 
to  thrive  and  develop,  namely  in  the  fall  months  when 
the  atmosphere  is  damp  and  during  the  summer  when 
the  natural  heat  rapidly  promotes  the  development  of 
germ  life  and  the  hatching  of  eggs  of  parasites. 

There  are  a  number  of  common  poultry  diseases  which 
are  found  in  all  sections  and  which  are  most  likely  to 
occur.  These  should  be  studied  in  order  that  they  may 
be  recognized  in  case  of  infection  and  the  proper  mea- 
sures applied: 

Roup 

Roup  is  a  contagious  catarrh  attacking  the  membrane 
lining  of  the  eye,  the  sacs  below  the  eye,  the  nostrils, 
the  larynx  and  the  trachea.  It  is  similar  to  influenza 
in  man  or  severe  colds  in  the  head.  It  is  always  attended 
by  fever  and  is  an  extremely  highly  contagious  dis- 
ease. In  fact,  it  seems  to  be  spread  entirely  by  conta- 
gion ;  that  is,  by  contact  with  diseased  fowls  or  the  germs 
coming  from  diseased  fowls.  The  nature  of  the  microbe 
causing  it  is  not  known  at  this  time. 

The  symptoms  generally  start  with  a  cold,  but  in  the 
more  advanced  stages  fever  develops,  sluggishness  and 
prostration  follow.  The  breathing  becomes  hard  and 
labored  and  the  eyes  swell  shut.  The  birds  will  be  found 
sneezing  and  making  efforts  to  dislodge  the  mucus  from 
the  breathing  passages  by  shaking  head.  There  is  no 
appetite  and  the  birds  generally  sit  around  with  droop- 
ing head  and  closed  eyes. 


Poultry  Diseases  and  Remedies  229 

The  treatment  is  to  immediately  isolate  the  affected 
fowls  from  the  rest  of  the  flock  by  placing  them  in  a. 
dry,  warm  and  well-ventilated  room  free  from  drafts. 
Antiseptic  mixtures  are  applied  to  the  mucous  mem- 
branes either  with  a  small  syringe  or  oil  can,  or  the 
bird's  head  may  be  plunged  in  a  bowl  of  the  mixture 
and  held  there  a  few  seconds.  The  remedies  recommend- 
ed for  such  treatment  are :  Boric  acid,  1  ounce ;  water  1 
quart.  Or,  permanganate  of  potash,  1  dram;  water,  1 
pint.  Or,  boric  acid,  li/4  ounces;  borate  of  soda,  l^ 
•ounce;  water,  1  quart.  Or,  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  1 
ounce;  water,  3  ounces.  After  this  treatment  anoint 
the  head  with  pure  vaseline  or  camphorated  vaseline. 

If  the  disease  is  of  a  severe  type,  the  best  remedy  is 
to  destroy  the  whole  flock  and  burn  the  carcasses,  thor- 
oughly disinfected  the  houses  and  premises  before  in- 
troducing new  stock.  This  may,  in  the  long  run,  be  the 
most  profitable  method  because  it  will  get  away  from 
the  possibility  of  any  infected  birds,  or  birds  contain- 
ing the  germs  getting  into  the  breeding  pens  or  in  con- 
tact with  the  young  stock  and  infecting  the  next  genera- 
tion. 

BipJitheria 

Diphtheria  starts  with  the  symptoms  of  a  cold  like 
roup,  but  differs  from  it  and  is  distinguished  from  it 
by  the  development  of  false  membranes  on  the  mucous 
surface  of  the  nostrils,  eyes,  mouth,  throat  and  smaller 
air  tubes. 

It  is  a  strictly  contagious  disease  and  it  is  thought 
that  it  never  develops  as  a  result  of  exposure  to  cold 
or  dampness,  although  once  it  gets  a  start  it  is  recog- 
nized that  these  conditions  favor  its  development. 

There  is  no  satisfactory  treatment  for  diphtheria  and 
the  best  plan  is  to  kill  the  infected  birds  and  burn  their 


230  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

carcasses.  The  premises  and  houses  should  be  thoroughly 
•disinfected  and  the  whole  course  of  the  disease  cheeked, 
even  if  the  entire  flock  has  to  be  sacrificed. 

Chicken  Pox 

Chicken  pox  or  bird  pox  is  distinguishable  by  an 
eruption  of  nodules  on  the  comb,  wattles  and  ear  lobes, 
of  irregular  size  ranging  up  to  the  size  of  a  pea.  Inves- 
tigation on  the  part  of  experts  has  revealed  the  fact  that 
it  comes  from  a  virus  identical  with  that  of  diphtheria. 
This  disease  is  spread  entirely  by  contagion,  that  is, 
from  bird  to  bird,  and  may  be  carried  from  flock  to 
flock  by  birds  or  pigeons. 

It  is  not  a  serious  disease,  as  a  rule,  and  may  be  cured 
by  local  treatment,  using  carbolated  ointment,  glycerin 
or  oil  directly  on  the  nodules  to  soften  the  crusts.  After 
an  hour  or  two  these  preparations  are  removed  by  wash- 
ing with  warm  water  containing  a  little  soap.  The  ex- 
posed tissue  is  then  treated  with  a  5  per  cent  solution 
of  carbolic  acid,  or  boric  acid  or  tincture  of  iodine. 
All  founts,  troughs  and  dishes,  as  well  as  the  houses 
should  be  thoroughly  disinfected  in  order  to  prevent  its 
spread. 

Cholera 

Fowl  cholera  is  a  highly  contagious  disease  spreading 
rapidly  through  a  flock  and  is  usually  marked  by  high 
mortality.  The  very  first  symptom  to  look  for  is  a  yel- 
lowish discoloration  of  that  part  of  the  excrement  se- 
creted by  the  kidneys  which  is  nearly  perfectly  white 
in  healthy  fowls.  This  is  soon  followed  by  diarrhoea, 
consisting  of  whitish  or  yellowish  secretions  mixed  with 
considerable  thin  mucus.  There  is  a  high  fever  and  the 
bird  loses  all  interest  in  life,  drooping  about  and  ap- 


Poultry  Diseases  and  Remedies  231 

pearing  sleepy.  It  has  no  appetite,  but  the  thirst  in- 
creases, and  the  combs  and  wattles  may  be  a  dark-bluish 
red  in  color,  or  pale  and  bloodless  on  account  of  con- 
gested internal  organs. 

Cholera  works  fast  and  may  destroy  an  entire  flock 
within  a  week.  It  may  apparently  disappear,  occasion- 
ally only  killing  a  bird,  and  then  break  out  again  in 
serious  form.  Post-mortem  examination  reveals  a  swol- 
len spleen,  enlarged  liver,  a  heart  with  red  spots  on  the 
surface. 

There  is  no  treatment  for  this  disease,  save  the  kill- 
ing and  burning  of  the  fowls.  Be  very  careful  in  kill- 
ing fowls  that  the  blood  does  not  get  on  the  premises, 
as  it  contains  large  numbers  of  the  germs  and  will  spread 
the  disease.  The  drinking  water  can  be  made  antisep- 
tic by  adding  1  dram  of  permanganate  of  potash  to  each 
gallon  of  water. 

Typhoid 

Very  similar  to  cholera  and  the  same  treatment  ad- 
vised for  cholera  applies  here.  It  generally  starts  with 
drowsiness  followed  by  prostration,  which  may  last  up 
to  two  days.  The  liver  is  enlarged,  dark  in  color- and 
covered  with  minute  necrotic  spots. 

White  Diarrhoea 

White  diarrhoea  is  caused  by  four  different  kinds  of 
infection  and  it  is  not  worth  while  to  enter  into  a  de- 
tailed study  of  them  all,  except  in  a  general  way,  in  a 
work  of  this  kind.  The  most  common  form  comes  from 
hens  that  have  previously  been  infected  with  the  disease 
and  apparently  recovered,  being  used  in  the  breeding 
pens.  This  causes  an  organism  to  remain  in  the  repro- 
ductive organs  of  these  hens  which  infects  the  eggs  they 


232  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

lay  and  these,  in  turn,  hatch  chicks  having  the  germs  in 
them  when  they  are  hatched.  Generally  the  symptoms 
develop  within  a  few  days  after  the  chick  is  hatched  and 
the  majority  die  hy  the  time  they  are  a  week  to  10  days 
old.  The  contagion  is  also  spread  from  chick  to  chick 
through  contact  and  the  droppings.  Baby  chicks  are 
most  susceptible  to  the  disease  the  first  24  hours  and 
are  generally  insusceptible  after  the  fourth  day,  al- 
though it  may  appear  in  chicks  contaminated  through 
the  droppings  when  the  chicks  are  from  one  to  two 
weeks  old. 

There  is  no  treatment  for  white  diarrhoea.  The  chicks 
must  be  killed  and  burned  immediately  upon  giving  in- 
dications of  the  disease,  such  as  being  pasted  up  behind. 
Thoroughly  disinfect  the  water  and  feed  troughs  and 
change  the  litter  of  the  chicks  every  day,  if  it  has  ap- 
peared. Give  the  chicks  sour  milk  or  buttermilk  to 
drink,  as  it  may  tend  to  defeat  its  spread. 

As  for  preventive  measures,  the  following  advice  is 
offered  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture: 

' '  The  preventive  measures  should  begin  with  the  eggs 
used  for  hatching.  If  these  are  purchased,  they  should 
be  accepted  only  from  flocks  known  to  be  healthy  and 
the  eggs  of  which  give  rise  to  healthy  chicks.  If  this 
assurance  cannot  be  obtained,  it  is  better  to  produce 
the  eggs  needed  for  hatching  on  the  home  farm  and  from 
hens  that  are  known  to  be  free  from  infection. 

'  *  Having  obtained  the  eggs,  they  should  be  kept  until 
ready  for  incubation  in  a  dry,  moderately  cool  place,  so 
spread  out  that  the  air  can  circulate  over  them  and  carry 
away  the  moisture  which  they  exhale.  %  They  should  not 
be  placed  in  hay,  straw,  chaff  or  other  substance  liable 
to  be  musty  or  moldy.  Before  putting  them  into  the  in- 
cubator or  under  the  hen  they  should  be  wiped  with  a 
cloth  wet  in  grain  alcohol  of  70  or  80  per  cent  strength 


Poultry  Diseases  and  Remedies  233 

to  remove  any  germs  that  might  be  on  the  outside  of 
the  shell.  The  hens  used  for  hatching  should  be  free 
from  all  infection,  and  the  incubator  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned.  If  there  have  been  any  sick  chicks  in 
it,  it  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected  by  washing  with 
compound  solution  of  cresol  (5  per  cent  solution).  The 
same  precautions  should  be  adopted  in  regard  to  the 
brooder. ' ' 


Tuherculosis 

This  is  a  chronic  contagious  disease  which  develops 
nodules  or  tubercles  in  various  organs  of  the  body,  but 
generally  in  the  liver,  spleen  and  intestines.  The  most 
frequent  place  is  in  the  liver,  and  a  post  mortem  ex- 
amination should  soon  reveal  whether  or  not  tubercu- 
losis is  responsible  for  the  fowl's  death.  It  is  highly 
contagious  and  readily  communicated  from  fowl  to 
fowl.  It  generally  is  pretty  well  distributed  through- 
out the  flock  before  the  attendant  is  aware  of  its  pres- 
ence at  all. 

The  symptoms  begin  with  gradual  loss  of  weight, 
wasting  of  muscles,  paleness  of  comb  and,  near  the  end, 
sleepiness  and  diarrhoea.  It  often  causes  inflammation 
and  swelling  in  the  joints  producing  lameness,  which, 
in  many  instances,  is  the  first  outward  symptom  the 
poultryman  or  farmer  has  as  to  the  presence  of  the  dis- 


There  is  no  treatment  for  tuberculosis.  The  fowls 
affected  must  be  destroyed  and  burned,  and  it  will  save 
money  in  the  long  run  to  kill  off  the  whole  flock,  burn 
them,  and  thoroughly  disinfect  the  houses,  appliances 
and  premises.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to  save  any 
of  the  fowls.    Those  apparently  all  right  are,  in  truth, 


234  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

suffering  from  diseased  livers  and  will  only  prove   a 
breeding  ground  for  the  bacilli  causing  the  disease. 

Intestinal  Worms 

Fowls  affected  with  intestinal  worms  can  generally  be 
detected  by  their  light  weight  and  weakness.  If  one 
cares  to  kill  them  and  make  an  examination  of  the  in- 
testines, the  thin  white  worms  can  be  discovered  by  mix- 
ing the  contents  with  water  in  a  dark-colored  pan. 

The  following  treatment  is  suggested  by  the  California 
Experiment  Station: 

"For  100  birds,  steep  one  pound  of  finely  chopped 
tobacco  stems  for  two  hours  in  water  enough  to  cover 
them.  Mix  the  stems  and  the  liquid  with  one-half  the 
usual  ration  of  ground  feed.  The  day  previous  to  treat- 
ment withhold  all  feed,  giving  water  only.  After  the 
birds  have  been  starved  for  24  hours,  feed  the  medicated 
mash,  and  two  hours  after  it  is  cleaned  up  give  them 
one-fourth  of  the  usual  ration  of  ground  feed  mixed  with 
water  in  which  Epsom  salt  has  been  dissolved  at  the  rate 
of  11  ounces  for  each  100  birds.  The  treatment  should 
be  repeated  10  days  later." 

In  the  case  of  tapeworms  a  slightly  different  treatment 
must  be  given.  The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  states  that  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent treatments  have  been  tried,  none  of  which  proved 
very  successful.  ''A  few  worms  may  be  eliminated  by 
dozing  each  bird  with  a  teaspoonful  of  castor  oil  to 
which  has  been  added  from  19  to  20  drops  of  oil  of 
shenopodium  (American  wormseed  oil),  according  to 
the  weight  of  the  bird.  The  medicine  should  be  given 
after  a  fast  and  repeated  again  in  10  days.  If  the  medic- 
inal treatment  is  combined  with  measures  to  maintain 
the  surroundings  in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condition,  in- 
cluding good  drainage  and  removal  of  the  manure  and 


Poultry  Diseases  and  Remedies  235 

other  litter,  infestation  with  tapeworms  is  less  likely 
to  cause  serious  trouble  than  if  these  precautions  are 
neglected. ' ' 

Limherneclc 

This  is  not  a  disease  in  itself  but  generally  a  symptom 
of  several  other  diseases  characterized  by  a  paralysis  of 
the  neck,  which  causes  the  fowl  to  lose  control  of  its 
head  so  that  it  cannot  raise  it  up  from  the  ground.  This 
is  due  to  the  absorption  of  poisons  from  the  intestines, 
acting  upon  the  nervous  system  and  causing  paralysis. 

Use  a  strong  purgative  such  as  50  to  60  grains  of 
Epsom  salt  or  3  or  4  teaspoonfuls  of  castor  oil  for  a 
grown  fowl  and  they  will  generally  be  all  right  in  24 
hours.  If  not  better  in  two  or  three  days,  it  is  best  to 
kill  them. 

Scaly  Legs 

Minute  parasites  burrowing  under  the  scales  on  the 
legs  cause  scaly  leg.  This  is  not,  in  the  early  stages,  a 
serious  or  painful  trouble,  but  if  it  is  allowed  to  go  it 
will  scon  practically  reduce  the  fowl  to  a  state  of  in- 
activity. It  is  easily  recognized  by  the  enlargement  of 
the  legs  and  feet  due  to  the  crusts  thrown  up  by  the 
parasites. 

The  first  step  in  treating  it  is  to  paint  the  roosts  and 
dropping  boards  with  wood  preservative  or  crude  pe- 
troleum as  a  precautionary  measure  against  the  further 
spreading  of  the  disease.  Then  wash  the  feet  in  soap 
and  warm  water  until  the  scales  are  loosened  and  come 
off.  Only  those  harboring  parasites  will  do  this.  Then 
apply  an  ointment  containing  a  2  per  cent  carbolic  acid 
or  the  sulphur  ointment  or  a  mixture  of  Peruvian  bal- 
sam, 1  ounce  and  alcohol,  3  ounces.  Carbolated  vaseline 
is  also  good. 


236  The  Modern  Farm  Hen 

Lice,  Mites 

It  is  not  economical,  as  a  rule,  to  attempt  to  mix  home 
insecticides  and  disinfectants.  These  can  be  purchased 
at  any  feed,  seed  or  drug  store  at  a  very  economical 
price.  The  best  plan  in  fighting  mites  or  lice  is  to  buy 
these  commercial  sprays  or  powders  and  apply  them  in 
the  manner  suggested  by  the  manufacturer. 

A  good  disinfectant,  in  addition  to  liquid  louse  killer, 
should  be  kept  in  hand  at  all  times  for  the  purpose  of 
spraying  as  a  preventative  against  the  outbreak  or 
spread  of  diseases  among  the  flock. 


This  book  is  a  preservation  facsimile. 

It  is  made  in  compliance  with  copyright  law 

and  produced  on  acid-free  archival 

60#  book  weight  paper 

which  meets  the  requirements  of 

ANSI/NISO  Z39.48-1992  (permanence  of  paper) 


Preservation  facsimile  printing  and  binding 

by 

Acme  Bookbinding 

Charlestown,  Massachusetts 


2007 


